Using located examples, analyse the importance of outsourcing for transnational corporations (TNCs).

“International migration is the main reason for the loss of distinctive local cultures.” Discuss this statement.

Outsourcing is when a company hands internal functions to an outside company (a client relationship), for example US/EU clothing companies outsource to Bangladesh; ICT outsourcing to Bangalore/Philippines; BP outsourcing of Gulf of Mexico oil rig operation to Halliburton; McDonald’s outsourcing the management of its restaurants to local companies in some states.

Outsourcing overlaps with foreign direct investment to a large extent if the TNC invests or has an ownership stake in the company it outsources to. There is considerable overlap between outsourcing and other forms of FDI (“offshore” branch plant construction) in terms of the important factors that drive these practices:

• cheap labour (and other low costs eg health and safety)
• low taxes (including use of Export Processing Zones/SEZs)
• local supplier’s ability to source cheap parts/materials or greater familiarity with market (glocalization).

These generic factors should be credited, even if the candidate’s link to proper outsourcing (as opposed to other forms of FDI) is insecure.

Good answers may show awareness that some companies may prefer to keep their operations in-house or may only outsource non-essential operations, or are beginning to “re-shore” operations to reduce supply chain risks (Japanese tsunami, disturbances in Ukraine, Nigeria, Kenya, etc). Another approach might be to analyse how some types/sectors of TNCs (mining operations, agribusinesses) may be less reliant on outsourcing than manufacturers and retailers with large and complex supply chains. Another approach might be to analyse how some TNCs, such as Amazon and Starbucks, have been criticized by the governments of sovereign states for the claim that they have “outsourced” operations to different subsidiaries of their own company (in an attempt to avoid corporation tax).

For band C, expect some description of the reasons why it is important for TNCs to have different operations/activities carried out in different places.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of why different operations/activities are carried out in different places or a good attempt to analyse why outsourcing is important for different TNCs.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus might be how a range of reasons/factors, including migration, helps explain the loss (or not) of distinctive local cultures. Likely reasons include internet/media, tourism, rising wages in emerging economies and elsewhere/changing employment structures. Credit physical reasons too, such as suggested climate change refugees (Tuvalu, Maldives).

Alternatively, candidates might discuss the extent to which migration brings loss/harm or benefits to the world’s many local cultures in both source and host regions for migration. Rather than addressing other factors, the discussion can encompass a range of ways in which migration and diaspora growth impacts on local cultures, including their preservation (the cultural “fossilization” of diaspora source nations, for instance).

Possible themes relating to migration and/or local culture include:

• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• homogenous urban landscapes [Guide 4]
• tourism and the tourist gaze [Guide 5]
• cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• global media and TNCs as agents of change [Guide 5 and 7]
• nationalist movements [Guide 6]
• isolationism [Guide 7].

Good answers may discuss what is meant by “loss”: culture comprises many traits, some of which may persist while others are lost or change. Another approach might be to discuss the emergence of new hybrid or “melting point” cultures eg in World Cities: these may replace previously homogenous cultures but they can be just as distinctive as the more homogenous
cultures that were found there before.

For band D, expect a structured discussion, the central elements of which are migration, local cultures and possibly some additional reasons/factors. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Outsourcing is a term that still causes confusion and was poorly understood by a surprising number of candidates. Typically, they used vague language, such as: “outsourcing is when a country uses the work force in another country”. Outsourcing is defined by the geography guide as “The concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them. Outsourcing is done to save money, improve quality or free company resources for other activities.” Within the context of a geography examination paper (as opposed to business management), it may safely be assumed that a company which outsources its operations overseas becomes, by default, what we would term a TNC. The geography guide defines a TNC as “a firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one country through foreign direct investment”. Significant global outsourcing relationships create a partnership (or global interaction) wherein both companies play a role in productive control. The client company may pay for training, or invest in the transfer of technology to the supplier company. The exam question also asked candidates to address the “importance” of the relationship for the Client Company, or TNC. Profitability was a key theme to explore here, linked with various low-cost factors of production. Well-developed examples were frequently supplied, usually Bangalore (call centres) or China (manufacturing). A few mentioned Bangladesh. Some of the best answers analysed the declining of outsourcing as a result of recent “reshoring” by risk-averse companies. Weaker candidates sometimes drifted off course and provided a lengthy cost-benefit analysis of outsourcing for India, rather than writing about the importance of outsourcing for companies.

The best answers were carefully structured around a range of possible factors, not just international migration, and used strong supporting evidence. Some of the strongest candidates offered a final substantiated judgment of whether migration is, or is not, the dominant factor. A minority of candidates misunderstood where the emphasis of the essay statement lies. They discussed whether migration was responsible for a loss, or gain, of culture. This approach was often hard to carry through and many floundered when it came to arguing coherently whether the presence of a diaspora community in a world city represents a loss, or gain, of “distinctive local cultures”.

Using examples, explain the growing need for environmental management at a global scale.

Examine how different global flows are affected by the availability of information and communications technology (ICT) and transport.

Likely examples of the need for management include topics/case studies of transboundary pollution, climate change, agribusiness and the environment, or oceanic pollution. For these themes, the explanation of need most likely will be linked with potential losses or “victims” (eg, harm to ocean life, homeless climate change refugees) either in particular local places or felt more universally (as a result of a global “failure” such as insufficient climate change mitigation). Other possibilities for exemplification include bio-conservation or resource management (eg, water or fossil fuels) linked with a sustainability agenda.

Good answers may also explain how the growing need is linked to population and/or economic/consumption growth in emerging/BRIC economies; or to global consumerism and the power of media and advertising. Good answers may also distinguish between regional problems (for neighbour countries) or truly global-scale concerns (climate change; biodiversity).

Do not over-credit recalled description of actual global governance actions (eg outcomes of the Kyoto, Paris, Montreal meetings, etc. This is not asked for by the question. The focus should be the growing need for management.

For band C (4-6 marks), expect a weakly-evidenced outline of one or two environmental issue(s). The need for management may be asserted.

For band D (7-8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of

• either two detailed global environmental issue(s) that need managing
• or reasons why this need is growing / becoming more urgent.

For band E (9-10 marks), expect both band D traits.

[10 marks]

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The question requires that multiple global flows are addressed and linked with the availability of different facilitating technologies. Possible themes from the geography guide include:

• the shrinking world (the combined outcome of ICT and transport) and how this affects multiple flows such as travel, tourism and social networking [Guide 2]
• labour migration (transport), financial flows (electronic money transfers) and outsourcing (call centres; commodity movements using containerized shipping) [Guide 3]
• diaspora growth and connectivity using social networking [Guide 5]
• global environmental online messaging [Guide 4]
• agribusinesses, raw materials and containerized transport [Guide 4].

Good answers might examine how availability varies spatially: there are still barriers to the actual use of ICT and transport even where it is theoretically available (poverty, censorship, conflict, etc). Another approach might be to examine how some global flows depend on either ICT or transport; whereas others, such as migration and tourism, involve both (physical movements of people using transport, online bookings and electronic remittances using ICT).

For band C (5-8 marks), expect a weakly-evidenced outline of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9-12 marks), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13-15 marks), expect both of these traits.

[15 marks]

Using examples, analyse how global financial flows can be affected by the actions of governments.

Discuss why anti-globalization movements/groups are found in most countries.

Financial flows include movements of money/credit/investment. Strictly, they should not include movements of goods/raw materials, although in reality there is some overlap (investments by TNCs underpin to flows of goods) and where appropriate the benefit of the doubt should be given.

National governments may directly transfer money via international aid programmes (bilateral or multilateral contributions), loans (including sovereign wealth funds) and investment (state-owned companies may purchase assets abroad). They indirectly affect financial flows through their policy-making. This can impact on migration (and thus remittances) and the investment patterns of TNCs (and thus flows of FDI, including investment, acquisitions, outsourcing). National governments also protect their economy from financial currency inflows/outflows. Money laundering is another possible theme.

Also credit use of multi-governmental organizations (and the way flows can accelerate with removal of tariffs/market expansion) and the intergovernmental nature of financial institutions/global governance (IMF and World Bank).

For band C, at least two financial flows should be described with some exemplification and a link established with government(s) (do not expect balance).

For band D, either more than two flows should be analysed and exemplified, or two flows analysed in a structured way that conceptualizes different types of influence (direct and indirect) or governments (national, MGOs, IGOs).

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the ubiquity of resistance to globalization. The statement is not intended as a challenge and no counter-argument is required.

Different reasons for resistance need to be identified; the reasons are not the same for all countries. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of one or more actual anti-globalization movements/groups must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons why globalization might be resisted by people in general).

Possible anti-globalization themes (expect examples of actual movements/groups for some but not all) include:

• anti-globalization movements (named groups are expected) [Guide 6,7]
• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs [Guide 5, 7]
• opposition to migration (may have names of political groups/parties) [Guide 6]
• opposition to IMF/SAPs [Guide 3]
• environmental concerns (example of civil society group/movement) [Guide 4]
• cultural imperialism (may refer to indigenous movement/protest) [Guide 5]
• resource nationalism (and populist/nationalist movements) [Guide 6]
• deindustrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• food miles and local sourcing movements (may name organization) [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may discuss globalization as a complex process, the effects of which are felt everywhere, albeit in varying ways, giving rise to movements/groups. Another approach may be to discuss how the veracity of the statement depends on what local effects of globalization are most strongly felt/perceived in a different locale (and perspectives may vary on this, even within the same locale).

For band D, there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically discusses the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Analyse how increased internet use has affected different global financial flows.

Examine the growing need for environmental management at a global scale.

Analyse how increased internet use has affected different global financial flows.

Credit discussion of internet, broadband, email, television/radio (on demand). Also credit mobile phone uptake / network growth Candidates may write in depth about a single case study of network growth over time. This could obtain full marks provided the effect on a range of financial flows is analysed in sufficient depth and detail.

• The internet also plays a role in enabling/accelerating a range of economic interactions and financial flows as part of the “shrinking world” effect.
• These include peer to peer payments such as: migrant remittances; purchases using mobile phone credit systems eg M-Pesa in Kenya (do not expect candidates to fully distinguish between smartphones and mobiles); international aid and charity donations eg Philippines 2013; crowd-sourced financing; online shopping (Amazon, eBay, airline tickets etc); financial transactions including share dealing. Credit ideas about outsourcing provided some effect of internet use on financial flows is suggested (for instance, use of outsourcing may require companies to transfer funds to suppliers; or may enhance profitability of firm; or may involve customers making a financial transaction).

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to systematically analyse a wide range of financial flows in a well-evidenced way. Another approach might be to analyse how financial flows in some localities are not affected, despite global growth in internet use, due to cost / prohibition / lack of access / other reasons.

For band C (4–6 marks), expect either some weakly-evidenced outlining of internet use in one or two local contexts or brief listing of some financial flows and economic impacts linked with internet use.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
• either a more detailed analysis of the increase in internet use over time, and its effect on two financial flows
• or a broader analysis of the effects of internet use on a wider range of financial flows (perhaps in different places).

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Examine the growing need for environmental management at a global scale.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Any aspect of environmental management can be discussed: likely themes for discussion include “global commons” such as the atmosphere, tropical rainforest biome and the oceans. An account of the dangers posed by degradation/depletion of these resources is to be expected, thereby demonstrating the need for action. A detailed range of global or international environmental issues/problems is sufficient to reach band D, even if little is said about management (other than asserting that it is needed).

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
• the need for climate change governance, possibly linked with issues such as the growth of food miles (air freight) [Guide 4] or the growth of polluting transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
• growing environmental awareness fostered via NGOs (eg Greenpeace); hence, civil society concerns suggest a growing need for management/action [Guide 4]
• the political (inter-governmental) response to transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
• EU environmental rules can be considered as “global” scale action [Guide 6]
• some candidates may discuss the need for global action to prevent loss of tropical rainforest (linked with timber resource use) [Guide 4]
• calls for the regulation of global agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
• commercial need for branded commodities to adopt “green credentials” [Guide 5]
• credit material dealing with the built environment / cultural environment (such as attempts to preserve architecture, language or other cultural traits).

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) which discusses why isolated actions taken by individual countries may have limited effectiveness, and global-scale action is required. Another approach might be to discuss why problems such as transboundary movements become complex and require action to be taken at a global/regional scale by many different countries working in tandem together. Another approach might be to systematically discuss different aspects of environmental management and the global conventions, protocol and agreements which relate to them.

Do not over-credit examples of local management of environmental problems (eg local ecotourism or local recycling) unless there is a “think global act local” link.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect
• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

This popular question was well answered in the majority of cases. Candidates analysed the statement using case studies of financial flows, augmented often with their own personal knowledge of online purchasing, crowdfunding and trading. The best answers used evidence well and were focused fully on financial flows. Electronic transfers of remittances and donations for disaster victims were written about widely.  There was widespread analysis too of out-sourcing investment into Bangalore and the role the internet plays supporting FDI (foreign direct investment) strategies by TNCs. Wherever possible, credit was awarded for work which focused on legitimate financial flows that have undoubtedly been enhanced by ICT. Some thoughtful answers analysed ways in which financial flows had been affected other than their volume and rapidity. Illegal (bank account hacking) and informal (peer-to-peer transfers) financial flows featured in some answers. So too did complex financial flows, such as transfer pricing by TNCs.

This question generated a great many mediocre responses which ‘patched’ together a series of environmental vignettes before asserting that better management is required. Climate change, oceanic pollution and global biodiversity loss were popular themes which suited the question context well. Better answers tended to acknowledge steps already taken towards improved global governance (COP21, for instance) before arguing that even more must be done.  Weaker responses were less selective in their choice of examples, typically involving fact-rich case studies of relatively localized issues. This meant there was not a compelling case for global management, merely better local management. The Chernobyl and Fukushima accidents were often used in this way. Candidates explained what had happened and then asserted that there is a need for power stations to be ‘managed globally’. 

Explain why the increasing needs of some countries for one or more raw materials are a cause of environmental concern.

“People living in the world’s most peripheral regions do not experience a ‘shrinking world’.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

AO1/2 Indicative content

Raw material(s) can include timber, copper, soya, oil, shale gas etc.

An account focused only on water should not progress beyond [6].

• The environmental concerns should clearly relate to the raw material chosen.
• There may be local and global dimensions (deforestation causing local degradation in addition to rising global carbon emissions).
• The countries/markets for the raw material can be identified.

Good answers may explain explicitly why there is concern over the increasing demand made by certain countries and may provide evidence to support this (eg China’s predicted growth in demand). Another approach might be to structure the explanation carefully around different categories of environmental concern.

For band C (4–6), an outline should be provided of either environmental problems/concerns linked with using raw material(s) or the needs of some countries.

For band D (7–8), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of

• either detailed environmental concerns linked with raw material(s) use/demand
• or the increasing resource needs for specified countries.

For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content

Peripheral regions: this is a contested term and is open to a variety of interpretations, ranging from isolated tribes, to landlocked African nations, to India and China (in relation to the G7/8 global “core”). Credit the “political periphery” of North Korea also. Each approach should be judged on its merits in terms of supporting evidence and argument.

Shrinking world: this refers to the way distant places are perceived to be nearer due to falling transport times and the instantaneous nature of electronic communications and data transfers.

Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:

• Even peripheral places are connected to global/regional internet/mobile networks.
• Peripheral places are connected to the core via flows of aid (including internet donations following disasters).
• The global spread of consumerism affects even peripheral places through the
  availability of imported food and goods.
• Media corporations have fostered widespread consumption of films and TV.
• Peripheral societies are visited by tourists.
• Exposure to global movements of pollution/waste may foster the sense of a shrinking world.

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might be structured around different strands of the shrinking world effect, eg use of transport, arrival of tourists, exposure to information flows
• might reflect critically on what is meant by “most peripheral”, who lives there, and the extent to which different groups of people in peripheral areas have differing experiences/perspectives on a shrinking world
• might reflect on the extent to which the world’s poor are sometimes compelled to travel as refugees or economic migrants, often considerable distances; while poor places are visited by representatives of the wealthy (charities, agencies), which provides some sense of “shrinking world” to both parties.

For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant
shrinking world/globalization themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.

Explain the causes and consequences of the international relocation of polluting industries and/or waste disposal.

“All societies, wherever they are, enjoy the benefits of a shrinking world.” Discuss this statement.

Polluting industries include manufacturing or mining operations with a large footprint and a polluting or dangerous character in the absence of regulation (examples might include Apple’s contractors in China). There are also international movements of waste (for recycling or disposal), for example, UK wastes to China (recycling) and European waste taken by contractors to Ivory Coast (dumping). The oil industry has brought polluting operations to many territories. While this is not strictly a “relocation”, the benefit of the doubt should be given to accounts of the expansion/diffusion of polluting industries (ie consequences of oil pollution in new deep water sites, for example, Gulf of Mexico, new sites in Niger delta, should be credited). Also credit eutrophication linked to agro-industry/agribusiness, etc.

The causes might include a quest for cheap sites (thus higher profits) and expect explanations to include details of labour costs, lack of red tape, etc. Weaker answers are likely to neglect causes, or provide simple assertions only (eg “there’s too much waste nowadays”).

Consequences for both physical environments (landscape, ecosystems) and people should be addressed. Some may be positive (eg recycling waste as a resource; FDI and its multiplier effects). Long-term litigation and quest for justice could even be a theme that is explored.

For band C, at least one cause and one consequence must be described (or a wider range of ideas listed) with some exemplification (of either one relocation or waste disposal example).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the causes and consequences (do not expect balance; case study consequences are likely to be more detailed and may use more than one example/industry, though this is not required)
• or some explanation of how a single incidence of relocation/disposal can have more varied consequences for different places/people (eg origin and destination), though less supporting detail is given.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

“Shrinking world” (time-space compression) should be explained and related to different ICT and transport technologies [Guide 2]. Increased migration can be credited as a symptom of a shrinking world (because migrants make use of transport). Trade blocs/MGOs, eg EU, can play a supporting role (because the removal of border controls removes intervening obstacles to migration/transport).

Possible economic benefits derived from connectivity include: more profitable TNCs, with work opportunities for outsourcing locations and locations in receipt of FDI [Guide 3] especially when long view is taken (eg signs of factory reform in Bangladesh). A range of sociocultural benefits can be explored that relate to the sharing of global media, the growth of social networks, etc [Guide 5]. The ease with which migrant remittances can be wired home (or money transferred via mobiles) might be explored [Guide 5]. There are many other benefits that can be mentioned, for example, access to branded commodities [Guide 5].

There are, of course, cases where the statement may not be true and societies remain non-globalized/disconnected. Expect examples of indigenous people, isolated tribes, or variation within societies, for example, subsistence farmers [Guide 7].

Another counterargument would be the “one-sided” benefits of connectivity, wherein poorer connected places are exploited as low-wage production sites, possibly suffering environmental problems [Guide 4]; the sociocultural reaction against globalization, and movements aiming to limit shrinking world effects in some way, for example, increased food localism or the resurgence of nationalism [Guide 6, 7]. Indigenous people may be victims, not beneficiaries, of global interactions [Guide 5]. A current affairs focus might be on internet privacy/rights.

For band C, the shrinking world/globalization (may not distinguish) must be described and its benefits commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either both sides of the argument are addressed (some societies/places benefit, some do not not), displaying some synthesis of a range of ideas, mostly (but not always) linked to the idea of a shrinking world/technology and transport
• or some more explicit discussion of how “benefits” are not enjoyed by all people within the same society/not everyone agrees what is beneficial (eg some perspectives see globalization as a sovereignty threat).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Analyse the relationship between globalization and the resurgence of nationalism in one country you have studied.

“Global interactions have made the world a richer place but not a fairer place.” Discuss this statement.

The resurgence of nationalist tendencies within states can link with international migration (notably the EU, also southern states of USA), a politicized loss of jobs to outsourcing (for example, USA to China) and broader concerns with cultural dilution (for example, the Facebook ban in Pakistan; state internet censorship to some degree can be found in 40 countries).

For bands D and E, the focus should clearly be on global rather than local interactions that do not reflect the dynamics of the world economy and/or its media (thus the labour migration of workers from Mexico to a global hub such as the USA is highly relevant; refugees seeking refuge from drought in a neighbouring country is not).

Nationalism itself assumes many forms – from overt racism/xenophobia to less sensational controls, for example, migration caps. Alternative interpretations of nationalism could include state-sanctioned hostile reaction to TNCs (for example, Chavez seizing assets of TNCs, or another “resource nationalism” case study) or clampdowns on media access sanctioned on national security grounds.

An account that lacks details of the manifestation of the growth of nationalism can still access the higher bands if the multiple “threats” brought by global interactions are well analysed. Discussion of only one country is required. In-depth analysis of a single reaction could reach full marks if the answer is developed, shows relevant understanding and uses terminology well.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Richer:

Global participation has increased over time and core areas [Guide 3] have clearly expanded since the days of the Brandt Report. Developing peripheries [Guide 3] are places where a large emerging middle class can be found apparent, for example, NICs/BRICs. This economic fact does not need to be contested/debated. However, it could be by suggesting the 2008 credit crunch caused the expansion of world wealth to temporarily halt/reverse. It is also possible to critique other notions of “wealth”, such as cultural [Guide 5] or ecological wealth [Guide 4], although, again, this is not a requirement.

Fairer:

This point does need to be debated, as it is controversial. Hundreds of millions have been lifted out of poverty in China although India is still a very divided society. It can be argued that global financial flows [Guide 3] have redistributed money on a regional level as world GDP has risen, with Asia, Brazil and some African (“African lion”) states clearly prospering at the aggregate level of GDP. But the benefits are still very uneven. Numbers in poverty in Saharan Africa have doubled over 30 years. Some financial flows (TNC profits, mining revenues etc.) are re-directed at core regions [Guide 3]. Good answers may debate the difficulties in finding a universally accessible definition of “fair” (or “wealth” for that matter).

There are also “unfair” losses for the environment [Guide 4] in many places (an account of transboundary pollution could be employed here) and for local cultures as languages are lost etc. [Guide 5]. There are many possible approaches and these should be assessed on their merits.

To access band D, the answers should be well balanced. For band E, there should be an evidenced conclusion that has critically interrogated the idea of “fairness” with respect to the changing distribution of the growing total amount of global wealth.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Some very strong answers examined the phenomenon of nationalization as an expression of "resource nationalism" (wherein the state re-asserts control of strategic resource operations, such as oil refineries owned by TNCs, as witnessed in recent years in Bolivia and Venezuela). Other candidates provided a thorough account of the xenophobic reaction to multiculturalism in EU nations (seen as a proxy for, or subset of, globalization). Contrastingly, weaker answers showed little understanding of what "nationalism" means, or made simple assertions that racism is now a problem in the UK, for example.

Less confident candidates sometimes chose to simply agree that the world is indeed an unfair place and did not, or could not, offer a counter-argument, whereas the strongest candidates knew plenty about the pros and cons of the actions and impacts of the IMF, the World Bank and SAPs (from strand 3 of the guide) and could therefore mount a proper assessment of how the opening up to global interactions of China and India (among others) had impacted on aggregate levels of wealth as well as on distributions (at varying geographical scales). The best answers provided strong evidence to support their arguments and could offer a wide interpretation of "fair" that allowed them to build a wider synthesis of ideas.

Using examples, explain the strengths and weaknesses of the concept of food miles.

“Global interactions are mainly driven by the actions of transnational corporations (TNCs).” Discuss this statement.

Food miles can be defined as a measure of the distance food travels from its source to the consumer. This can be given either in units of actual distance or of energy consumed during transport.

The strengths of the concept include drawing awareness to the extreme distance travelled by some produce, thereby empowering consumers to make informed choices. This can be linked with broader concerns with carbon footprint size and ecological footprint size, especially in the context of air freight. Expected examples are food journeys that appear excessive, especially when produce that is also locally available is being shipped across continents (for example, south American asparagus flown to the UK, or similar examples). Allow a broad interpretation of “food”, for example, credit discussion of bottled water from Fiji being shipped to Europe and USA.

A critical explanation of the concept of food miles ought to also recognize it is a crude concept with many weaknesses. Distance travelled is only one footprinting measure. Locally produced food can use excessive energy inputs too, for example, hot-houses. It is hard to quantify food miles for processed or prepared foods with multiple ingredients. Rejecting food from distant places impacts on farmers’ livelihoods (and many fair trade products have high food miles attached to them).

An account that addresses the costs and benefits of long-distance food sourcing, rather than the concept of food miles (that is, the notion that distance is a reliable proxy for energy consumption/a benchmark for ethical consumerism), may reach the border of band C/D. Other misinterpretations may be marked in a similarly positive way, provided “food miles” is the clear focus of the answer, and the examples provided.

At band D, expect some strengths and weaknesses to have been identified and explained using examples, but do not expect balance. For band E there should be proper consideration of weaknesses as well as strengths, that is, a critical explanation of the concept of food miles has been offered.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

TNCs are key actors who spread consumerism [Guide 5.2] and also build global production networks through practices such as outsourcing [Guide 3.3 and 4.2]. Their primary motive is profit-making which provides a strong driving force, as the statement suggests. It is hard to imagine a form of globalization without global capitalism and TNCs are arguably globalization’s “architects”: the financial flows they generate are of primary importance [Guide 3.1]. They have built up economic activity in cores/global hubs [Guide 1.2], attracting migrants as part of local and global backwash processes. The global map of economic activity and wealth strongly mirrors the geography of TNCs. Some TNCs are arguably more powerful, and demonstrably more wealthy, than some nation states [Guide 6.1].

TNCs innovate glocally as part of their growth strategy [Guide 7.1 and 7.2] and this provides an extra dimension to global interactions (which include social, cultural and political interactions). TNCs can be seen to have a role too as internet service providers [Guide 2.2] and major media and branded corporations (for example, Disney) [Guide 5.2].

The alternate viewpoint is that TNCs are not acting alone and other actors have a role in shaping global interactions. These include:

• Multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) [Guide 6.1 and 3.1] who design the legal infrastructure for investment without which TNCs could not operate on a global scale as effectively – the provision of SEZs (special economic zones) is also very important, for example, for China to attract FDI. 
• The Washington IMF-led neo-liberal project/global harmonization, for example, through SAPs (structural adjustment programmes)/guiding actions of WTO/World Bank are all an important part of the economic counter-argument [Guide 3.1].

More broadly, technology could be cast as an autonomous actor that has its own role to play [Guide 2.2 and 3.2] and helps drive cultural interactions [Guide 5.1], for example, growth of Facebook.

High-scoring evaluative answers may show that the power of TNCs is exercised alongside/in tandem with political power (the idea that economic globalization has been led by the USA acting as a “superpower” in the best interests of its TNCs).

Answers that address both sides of the argument are likely to reach band D. To reach band E, there should also be balance and some sophisticated analysis.

While the topic of food miles was a familiar one for most candidates, the question as written proved to be a struggle for some, who were unable to frame a response around the strengths and weaknesses of “the concept of food miles” (that is, the conception that the footprint of a product can be accounted for by using the distance it has travelled as a proxy). Instead, many wrote about the costs and benefits of long-distance sourcing of food, both for producers and consumers. Wherever possible, some sympathetic credit was given for this approach, although it was rare to see such an answer progress beyond band C.

Many candidates could write at length about TNCs, especially the “familiar faces” of McDonald’s and Disney. It is a pity that there is less evidence of candidates and centres undertaking individual research into alternative case studies (of which there is no shortage, after all). Generally, most could “play off” the importance of TNCs (as actors) against other forces, typically technology and MGOs (such as the EU, UN and occasionally the IMF). A few grasped that TNCs drive economic and cultural interactions in tandem with other actors who are busy promoting political globalization.  A very few could take this further still, delivering a holistic “big picture” of political and economic interactions driven by a nexus of powerful governments, corporations and institutions. One candidate even knew of Nixon’s past as a lawyer for Pepsi – gleaned from watching the classic Burp! Documentary by John Pilger, perhaps?

Explain what is meant by cultural imperialism.

“Global interactions always lead to positive environmental change.” Discuss this statement.

A definition of cultural imperialism supported by further expansion is expected. One suitable definition would be: “The promotion and imposition of the cultural traits of one nation upon another; a consequence of globalization”. The supporting explanation should identify the following aspects of cultural imperialism, developing some of them further as shown below.

• Cultural imperialism involves cultural traits, their means of transfer, and their consequences.
• Cultural traits include language, consumerism, customs, morals, art, architecture, religion and education.
• The means of transfer include education, ICT, communications, the media, TNCs, trade and tourism.
• The consequences may include dilution or loss of indigenous culture and the imposition of traits of the dominant culture.

The best responses will incorporate examples, such as the “Japanization” of South Korea.

It is not necessary for responses to consider all aspects of cultural imperialism, provided that a range of traits and some mention of a variety of means of transfer is expressed.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

It is expected that better responses will consider both positive and negative effects of global interactions.

Positive consequences of global interactions might include the introduction of improved technologies by some TNCs and the work of civil societies (including NGOs such as Greenpeace). International environmental agreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol, and the spread of knowledge and awareness of environmental issues through education might also be discussed.

Negative consequences include the degradation of landscapes and creation of homogenized landscapes due to agro-industrialization and globalization of cityscapes.

Some international interactions are reciprocal, in that benefits at the source may be counterbalanced by adverse consequences at the destination (movement of polluting industries; transfer of waste).

The best responses accessing bands E/F will discuss both urban and rural areas and a range of economic activities, such as the exploitation of natural resources, manufacturing and services including tourism. They may also discuss examples at a range of scales.

It is not essential for responses to treat positive and negative consequences of global interactions in equal depth. A good discussion of one may compensate for a weaker discussion of the other.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Analyse the spatial and temporal pattern of adoption of one or more branded commodities.

“Global interactions have helped reduce disparities between places.” Discuss this statement.

There are spatial and temporal dimensions to the topic and both should be addressed. Only one example is required. If two examples are used then credit breadth rather than depth of analysis.

For band C, expect a description of the pattern of growth that contains some reference to a timescale and identifies countries or regions where the commodity/commodities have been adopted.

For bands D and E, expect a more thorough analysis that has good details or may additionally acknowledge the glocalized nature of the growth pattern or can identify growth boundaries (rather than implying the entire world has adopted the commodity), for example, may view poverty in parts of the world periphery as an obstacle to complete global diffusion. The case studies of diffusion may highlight key “blind spots” or anomalies where local resistance exists for cultural, political or economic reasons. For instance, there may be religious obstacles to the diffusion of McDonald’s beefburgers. Good answers may be aware of tariffs and trade bloc arrangements making it difficult for TNCs to gain entry to certain key markets.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The term “global interactions” should be explained; many approaches are possible. Some responses may do this by reference to one of the indices of interactions [Guide 1]. This could then provide a structure for their response. Alternatively, responses may focus on different types of interactions, such as trade, aid, flows of labour, currency etc. and structure their response by looking at different examples [Guide 3].

It is valid to examine disparities at any scale, including the local scale, provided they are linked to global interactions.

The strongest responses will make explicit links between the changes they describe (for example, poverty reduction in China) and specific global interactions (for example, China building wealth through global trade).

Some may argue that as global interactions have increased, core areas have expanded to include more people [Guide 1]. Expect most accounts to tackle the idea of a developing periphery, for example, NICs/BRICs/EAGLEs.

A broad interpretation of “disparities” should be credited, for example, gender or environmental degradation [Guide 4]. Expect some mention of “unfair” losses for people whose environment is damaged by global trade and transboundary pollution [Guide 4]. Also, local cultures may be eroded [Guide 5], while the political emasculation of small states by powerful TNCs might even be discussed in a creditable way [Guide 6].

To access bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected if the candidate has a strong evidenced argument that mostly agrees or disagrees with the statement. Greater attention to scale (tackling disparities both between and within nations) is also indicative of high markband attainment.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

It is clear that many centres are teaching detailed case studies of Coca-Cola and McDonald's as branded commodities (very few responses mentioned other branded commodities). It was common for the temporal pattern of adoption to be treated in more detail than the spatial pattern of adoption, despite the guide's wording (that gives equal weighting to both). Weaker answers failed to reference any named places, cities, countries or regions, or could argue for little beyond a basic diffusion "from MEDCs to LEDCs". Most responses looked only (and partially) at where the commodity was adopted. Fewer considered the delimitation of the pattern, that  is, could recognize the "black spots" where it was not yet adopted, either because it was not offered or was rejected (this strand of argument was actively looked for at band E, given the overarching rationale of this part of the course – as set out in the very first paragraph of part 3 of the guide - which encourages teachers and candidates to consider patterns of resistance, as well as adoption, in relation to global interactions).

"Disparities" is a wide umbrella term. The use of it here aimed to open the question up, thereby allowing a synthetic response ideally to be developed. The best answers appreciated this, and could demonstrate that not all disparities are income-based (the commonest interpretation). Stronger responses also included reference to disparities relating to race, gender, ethnicity and social status. Mid-level responses tended to be limited to a consideration of just two kinds of interaction, typically remittances and investment by TNCs. A third theme was usually introduced in better answers, such as trade interactions taking place within trade blocs. (More than two themes is very much to be to be encouraged if bands D and E are to be attained in a part (b) essay, following the "synthesis" criteria of assessment objective 3.)

Using examples, explain the factors responsible for the global spread of consumer culture.

“National governments cannot control global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Consumer culture may be described and exemplified as the spread of purchasing habits (branded clothes, fast food, music), or analysed in greater depth as the spread of a capitalist worldview wherein everyday life is commoditized and branded. Multiple traits of consumer culture might be identified, including:

• changing tastes in food (linked with retail and restaurant TNCs)
• fashion (linked with global media corporations)
• music purchasing (linked with online platforms such as iTunes and YouTube).

The key factors that can be explained include:

• the expansion of TNCs in a drive for new markets (may involve glocalization)
• the growth of global media and ICT (operating either as an independent factor or as a byproduct of innovation by TNCs such as Microsoft and Apple)
• the concept of cultural imperialism (linked either to the activities of TNCs or superpower states with “soft power” such as the USA).

Good answers may note that the factors are interrelated and reinforce one another (TNCs drive innovation, for instance). Another approach might examine how different factors might be linked with different aspects/traits of consumer culture (the spread of designer clothes can be related to container shipping and TNCs; the purchasing of online games and music can be related to ICT).

For band C, expect two factors to be described and linked with the spread of culture and/or commodities.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of a range of factors linked with the spread of culture/commodities or greater explanation of what is meant by “the spread of consumer culture”.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Management by national government may comprise migration controls, rules for FDI, terms attached to loans and aid, the issues of internet control and censorship. Successes and failure to control may be highlighted either between different countries, or different kinds of global interaction (trade/migration/information flows), or both.

Possible themes include:

• MGOs such as the EU and NAFTA as evidence the statement is correct and countries must now group together in order to try to manage global interactions in ways that reestablish some control [Guide 6]
• cultural globalization as an unstoppable force (or not) and national attempts to control flows of media and information [Guide 5]
• the power of global financial institutions eg IMF and its insistence that national governments institute reforms eg SAPs [Guide 3]
• migration issues and controls [Guide 3, 6, 7]
• government promotion of localism [Guide 7]
• transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
• government attitudes towards foreign direct investment and financial flows [Guide 2]
• military conflicts eg ISIS in the Middle East [current affairs].

Good answers may be structured around different kinds of global interactions (eg contrasts management of economic interactions and cultural globalization in the course of the essay). Another approach might be to discuss the effectiveness of the actions of different types of government (democracies and autocracies).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how national governments control/cannot control different kinds of global interaction. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced
conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

The best answers explained what was meant by consumer culture, as opposed to “culture” in general. Candidates were often well-versed in geographical terminology and could write with confidence about cultural diffusion and imperialism. In contrast, some candidates produced a “common sense” response that a candidate of any subject might have written. These answers focused on the power of advertising and branding, often at great length. Sometimes, this was sufficient for band C or even D.

This popular question allowed a wide range of themes to be synthesized. The change in the power of national governments was often thoroughly interrogated by the strongest candidates. At the upper end, there was frank acknowledgment that opting out of economic globalization is not a realistic strategy for any leading industrialized nation, but that degrees of control over migration and information flows are still achievable.

Explain how rising global demand for one raw material has led to environmental degradation.

“The barriers to global interactions are increasing, not decreasing.” Discuss this statement.

Raw materials may include fossil fuels, ores, timber or food stuffs such as soya. Any unexpected interpretations, the validity of which is not clear, must be referred to a team leader.

• Located impacts for degradation could include the Niger delta or Gulf of Mexico (oil), Brazil (timber/soya), shale gas (USA), oil sands (Canada).
• Specific impacts might include loss of biodiversity or acid rain. A good account of impacts that lacks locational detail can still reach the higher band if the process details are good.
• The idea of degradation might also be linked to the lifecycle of the raw material/product including waste disposal issues.
• Good answers may be structured to show different scales of environmental degradation (local and global) or may look at transmission of effects (questioning whether degradation occurs at the source or destination/market eg coal burning).

Details of rising demand are required for band E, or can help candidates to access band D if they are lacking details about environmental degradation. Rising demand could be linked specifically with the growth of emerging economies/rising affluence/growth of new consumer classes. Some credit can be given for suggesting population increases, although rising demand is in fact related far more to changing lifestyles in China, Brazil, Indonesia, etc.

At band D, expect either a detailed description of some range of environmental degradation, or a clear explanation of how/why rising demand plays a role.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions may be defined as a diverse set of flows (economic, social, cultural, etc), potentially “setting the scene” for an essay which provides a nuanced conclusion that discusses the extent to which the statement is true for different types of global interaction.

Likely themes and barriers include:

• free trade versus protectionism (and the role trade blocs play); the focus will be loss of sovereignty and multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) [Guide 6]
• information exchange versus censorship, linked to growing importance of technology/“shrinking world” theory [Guide 2]
• “open-door” migration versus points systems and restrictions either in the context of economic migration or diaspora studies [Guide 3, Guide 5]
• some possible considerations of the now well-documented and growing risks associated with outsourcing/offshoring [Guide 3] – perhaps an “end of globalization” argument
• physical/environmental barriers may not be growing but are certainly falling due to overcoming of friction of distance [Guide 2]
• developed further, the migration and offshoring debates can be linked with the resurgence of nationalism and anti-globalization movements [Guide 6, Guide 7].

The double-edged effect of MGOs may be remarked on – namely, that they reduce barriers to internal exchanges while erecting barriers to external trade (eg through the adoption of a common external tariff in the case of the EU, thereby excluding some producers from access to European markets).

Good answers may conclude that the response to the question depends on the type of interaction that is being discussed (thus China is more open to flows of FDI than in the past, pre-1978; yet efforts to censor the internet have increased in line with its growing popularity). Some countries encourage economic interactions but attempt to curtail cultural ones.

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a variety of ways in which barriers are changing, or a more critical discussion of different kinds of barriers and interactions.

At band E, expect both.

Many mediocre responses were seen. Some very generalized impacts were described, with many candidates offering little beyond “pollution” or “global warming”. Also, the phrase “rising global demand” was glossed over in most cases, with candidates simply asserting that more oil or timber (the most popular choices) is needed today than in the past. Few could link the rising demand with important global development such as the rise of consumption in emerging economies. Higher level diploma geography candidates really ought to be in possession of supporting data in relation to the changing global pattern of wealth. One good starting point for updating content, already mentioned in a previous subject report for this paper, is this recent McKinsey report:

http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class 

A pleasing number of candidates who chose this question were able to offer a proper evaluation that gave nuanced consideration to what is meant by a “barrier” (poverty, languages, and political obstacles were all possibilities). Many grasped the paradox that trade blocs simultaneously increase and decrease barriers (according to who is a member of the bloc, and who is not).

Analyse the increasing influence of one multi-governmental organization you have studied.

“Global interactions bring negative effects, rather than positive effects, to every part of the world.” Discuss this statement.

Likely examples include the EU, NAFTA or the BRICS group (which has had annual meetings since 2009). Also credit other examples of global governance with a multi-governmental character, such as the IMF, World Bank, G8, OPEC, NATO, OECD. Also credit the UN, or UN-sponsored agencies. An analysis of the influence of a specific global conference or agreement/protocol (climate change meetings in Kyoto, Doha, etc) could reach band D/E provided that it is explicitly shown to be the product of multi-governmental collaboration, organization or debate (if not, limit such responses to band C).

Multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) influence the way citizens, civil society and businesses operate by relaxing barriers to certain types of global flow/movement (migrants, tourists, goods, capital, etc). A key issue is the diminishing effectiveness of political borders.

Alternative approaches might analyse the political influence that MGOs have over the governance of sovereign states:

• EU states must agree to adopt legislation from European Parliament (some may even know of the growing influence of Germany as a driver of EU policy affecting Greece during Eurozone crisis)
• IMF insistence on economic reform/adjustments in countries seeking loans, sometimes critiqued as a neo-colonial form of influence
• UN human rights rulings/war tribunals/peace-keeping operations
• NATO or other military alliances and their actions
• the macro-economic influence of OPEC during the 1970s (another approach might be to analyse why OPEC’s influence has ceased to increase since)
• the growing influence of the BRICS group (especially Chinese and Indian investment in African countries).

At band D, expect either description of some range of ways in which an MGO is influential, or some chronology/explanation of why its influence is increasing.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Three likely ways to discuss the statement (there may be others) are as follows:

• one way is to assess the net effect for a range of generic global concerns (“every part of the world” is thus interpreted as “the world”)
• another way is to agree that there are few positives associated with global interactions, notably environmental effects, and to then address the extent to which particular places, especially isolated/wilderness regions [Guide 7], have suffered
• alternatively, candidates may offer a place-by-place or regional audit eg compares/discusses South America, Africa, USA, etc.

Likely themes for discussion include:

• financial flows [Guide 3] and workplace exploitation, balanced against the alleviation of poverty
• cultural interactions can bring homogeneity but also bring new forms of culture, and hybridity [Guide 5] but this must be balanced against the loss of authentic differences and the ways in which adopted cultural traits enable “exploitative” or consumerist TNCs to gain leverage to penetrate new markets, etc
• migration brings a range of effects for host and source regions [Guide 5]; these should be carefully weighed and, ideally, a genuine evaluation given (rather than listed costs and benefits)
• environmental harm is likely to be a major theme [Guide 4]; some may argue that accelerated climate change stems from accelerated global interactions (accept this view), opening the way for a thoughtful discussion of predicted changes (including some beneficial ones, eg thermal growing season).

Good answers may provide some discussion of the extent of these effects (the interrogation of whether “every place” is affected) and may focus on “un-globalized” societies eg Amazonian tribes [Guide 7], ocean pathways for pollution and plastic-strewn coral atolls, Antarctic beaches, etc.

At band D, there should be either a detailed explanation of a variety of effects or a more critical discussion of the net balance/spread of effects.

For band E, expect both.

Some excellent answers were seen that addressed “influence” in multiple ways. Trade, geopolitics and migration were common themes that candidates using the EU or NAFTA explored. These were far and away the most popular examples, although a small minority wrote about Mercosur. Middle-ability candidates were sometimes shaky on important details, such as the number of EU member states.

Well-informed and well-revised candidates were likely to attain band D, as this was achievable by synthesizing a series of “positive” and “negative” case studies of almost any variety and concluding that global interactions have brought “mixed” results. Far fewer candidates displayed the ability to produce a nuanced evaluation of the statement that was more sensitive to the concepts of geographical place and scale. Where band E marks were awarded, candidates had generally progressed beyond a mere “costs and benefits” approach and were able to focus on the veracity of the statement that every part of the world is adversely affected by global interactions. They debated explicitly whether effects such as the spread of English language, or diffusion of plastic pollution in the oceans, are truly globalized phenomena or not.

Using examples, analyse the benefits of globalized production for local societies.

To what extent is environmental sustainability incompatible with the growth of globalization?

The different local societies may be in producer or consumer nations/areas. States can be treated as "local" places within a global context.

Examples of “globalized production” can be taken from any sector of industry: agribusiness, manufacturing or service sector (eg the outsourcing of call centres). The benefits for producer nations/areas could be economic (including multipliers, cheaper mass-produced goods, etc) and/or social (eg improved work opportunities for women, increased family wages and thus educational opportunities for children). Also credit the idea of increased consumer choice (eg fast food).

There are also benefits for local societies/regions that are now consumer/post-industrial regions, following global shift/relocation of polluting industries. It can be argued that they have “re-invented” themselves as cleaner, higher-wage societies that additionally benefit from cheap imports of global goods from producer regions.

Do not credit benefits for TNCs, or disadvantages for local societies, as neither is asked for by the question. Any such material should be deemed irrelevant.

For band C, two benefits of globalized production should be described in relation to local society/societies in general.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of benefits and/or recognizable local societies, or a structured account that conceptualizes some different kinds of globalized production.

At band E, expect all of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be whether environmental sustainability – the idea that future generations should enjoy the same landscapes, ecosystem services, resources, etc that are available for living generations – cannot be guaranteed if globalization continues along its current trajectory (with resulting environmental degradation).

Globalization is the growing economic interdependence of the world, accompanied by increased global flows of goods, people, capital, information. The “growth” of globalization is associated with high economic growth rates in emerging economies/NICs/BRICs and this may be commented on/highlighted as an area of particular environmental concern, along with the already large footprint of the USA and, to a lesser extent, Japan, Australia, NZ and EU nations. Some answers may lack focus on globalization/sustainability and instead describe how human activity in general results in problems such as acid rain, eutrophication and nuclear accidents (to name but a few). Such partial answers may still reach the band C/D border if they are sufficiently synthetic (see below).

Possible themes for synthesis linked to sustainability/globalization include:

• growth of core regions [Guide 1]
• growth of transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
• ICT and information flows (may have lower footprint) [Guide 3]
• agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
• environmental awareness and green messaging [Guide 4]
• food miles and air freight [Guide 4]
• globalization of branded commodities (and implications for resource use and waste) [Guide 5]
• de-industrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• some local sourcing movements are rooted in anti-globalization/sustainability rhetoric [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may evaluate the extent to which some aspects of globalization are less harmful to the environment than others. Alternatively, a good inquiry of “to what extent” might take the view that growing global environmental awareness, or global cooperation on environmental issues and “technical fixes”, can ameliorate environmental degradation and may yet mean that long-term environmental sustainability is possible.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that considers the extent to which the statement is true.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using one or more examples, analyse the geographic challenges associated with transboundary pollution.

Examine how disparities between countries give rise to different global flows.

Transboundary pollution has damaging effects for more than one country. It is most likely that candidates will analyse an “event”, such as a major oil spill, or a pervasive air pollution event or period of acid rain (which could last for many months or even years – an example being NW Europe in the 1970s and 1980s). Whatever examples are used, it should be made explicit who is affected and why the event is “transboundary”.

• “Geographic challenges” includes the consequences of the pollution, such as immediate human, ecological and environmental impacts.
• There are also longer clear-up operations and challenges to consider.
• Also, there is the challenge of achieving effective regulation / prevention with pollution management strategies, including global governance of the issue(s).

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to analyse different categories of geographic challenge eg economic, political and environmental or short and long term. Another approach might be to compare issues for countries closer to the pollution source with issues for countries further away. Another approach might be to analyse the challenges of preventing future pollution given the physical processes involved eg atmospheric circulation. Another approach might be to analyse how the geographic challenges differ according to the scale of the problem and the number of states and stakeholders that are affected.

Pollution events such as the Bhopal incident are not transboundary but may achieve band C if the concept of transnational has been well-analysed (idea of TNCs moving their pollution / unsafe operations overseas). The movement of recycling wastes to China may be marked in the same way (though not transboundary, some limited credit for the transnational aspects of the case study could be given). Accounts of carbon emissions and climate change should also be treated like this.

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the effects of transboundary/transnational pollution in one or more contexts.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of: 

• either one or more detailed examples of the consequences of actual transboundary pollution
• or different types of geographic challenge (eg near & far challenges, short and long-term challenges or economic and governance challenges).

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on disparities between countries or different global groups of countries: these may include economic, social, political or other disparities. The question suggests that disparities give rise to multiple flows. These range from financial flows to migration and the movement of ideas and information.

Better answers will maintain a focus on flows eg FDI, remittances; weaker answer may at times become more descriptive of the actions or impacts of different stakeholders/actors eg TNCs (and flows may be implied rather than explicitly examined).

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• labour/migration flows [Guide 3]
• financial flows, eg remittances/aid/loans [Guide 3]
• investments by global institutions such as the IMF [Guide 3]
• raw material flows [Guide 4]
• waste disposal flows [Guide 4]
• information flows routed via low-cost outsourcing centres [Guide 3]
• TNC investment into new emerging markets and profit repatriation [Guide 5]
• past/present cultural exchanges linked with core–periphery labour flows [Guide 6].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three or more of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that examines the complexity of global disparities (there are multiple development gaps and disparities eg between emerging economies and the least developed states). Another approach might be to examine non-economic disparities eg differences in governance and human rights. Another approach might be to examine the scale of different flows/movements (eg USA and Mexico are neighbour countries; India and UK are distant from one another).

Answers dealing only with movements from “poor” to “rich” places will most likely show only limited understanding of what could be meant by “disparities between countries” and are unlikely to reach the highest band even if factually detailed.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Explain what is meant by time–space convergence.

“Global interactions result in some form of environmental damage being experienced everywhere.” Discuss this statement.

The key idea is that of a “shrinking world” thanks to technological innovation over time. Expect some explanation of the technologies that enable this change and empirical evidence to support it (for example, time taken to circumnavigate the world etc.). This may be shown in diagrammatic form and should be credited.

Other approaches to explanation might include an analysis of the range of flows/global interactions that are enabled by different technologies (and the specific impacts they bring as aspects of the convergence, for example, cultural dilution, McDonaldization or growth of “global village”).

Good answers may recognize the uneven nature of time–space compression (not all people and places experience it to the same extent; some places have “opted-out” of globalization etc.).

At band C, answers may be descriptive of reduced times for travel (provide facts about reducing sailing times etc.) without addressing the concept of time–space convergence very explicitly, or provide a superficial account of the concept but without much real evidence to ground the explanation.

For bands D and E, answers will be focused on both dimensions of space and time (global technologies bring places/people nearer together by reducing the time taken for instantaneous interactions/flows to occur) and the explanation is well supported with examples. Band E answers may additionally show especially adroit handling of the concept or employ very good terminology.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions can include FDI by TNCs, information flows, migrants, and trade and commodity flows [Guide 3.1, 3.2, 3.3]. Specific activities, for example, agro-industrialization of peripheral regions or raw material extraction (including energy sources), or TNC operations in different territories are relevant activities that may have a global dimension and constitute interactions [Guide 4.1, 4.2].

In discussing “everywhere”, good answers may consider whether a geographic pattern of damage can be identified (that is, linked to trade routes, coastlines; or a developmental pattern, for example, idea of excessive impacts for LEDCs rather than MEDCs); or whether some areas manage to escape certain kinds of damage (related perhaps to the “wilderness” concept).

Themes may include:

• the pattern for individual transboundary pollution events [Guide 4.3]
• excessively damaging impacts for poorly regulated LEDCs [Guide 4.2]
• major shipping routes and pollution, for example, oil spills, and other pollution linked with global interactions, for example, Niger delta oil fields in Nigeria [Guide 4.3]
• e-waste in poor countries [Guide 4.2]
• “non-globalized”, “untouched” or wilderness regions [Guide 7.4]
• increased protection thanks to NGOs/civil society organizations, for example, Greenpeace [Guide 4.3]
• possible impacts of global tourist flows on environments [Guide 5.1].

Given that all flows have a carbon footprint – even internet use and Google searches – links may be made with climate change science and perhaps the extent of its impacts, for example, greater warming for Arctic regions. 

There may be alternate approaches and these should be credited.  For bands D and E, some range of interactions must be addressed. There should be some explicit consideration, especially at band E, of what is meant by “everywhere” (that is, argues that some places are worse affected than others, or some places have escaped from, or are protected from, the environmental harm that global interactions may bring).

Good answers to this question were often conceptually rich and encompassed closely related concepts (shrinking world, friction of distance, two-speed world, and so on) or perhaps critiqued the notion that everyone experiences time–space convergence to the same extent (an important point that geographers such as Doreen Massey have stressed). More mediocre answers, typically reaching band C, took a “general knowledge” approach and described, or listed, a string of famous aeroplanes, sailing ships, and their journey times. The best answers combined conceptual flair with strong evidence-based writing, as they should.

Competent answers suggested or implied some sort of global pattern of environmental damage, or used the idea of scale effectively, thereby tackling the command to interrogate whether environmental harm is experienced “everywhere”. Some took the view that it is not true that damage is experienced everywhere, or that it is experienced to a lesser degree in some places –  this approach could reach band D if a range of evidence was provided to substantiate the assertion. Overall, disappointingly few used scale as an explicit scaffold for their essay (for instance, an argument could be made that global consumption drives global-scale climatic and sea-level changes, and also highly localized forms of damage, such as landfill). The weakest responses took globalization to be a synonym for “humans” and recounted every environmental incident they could remember – sometimes specific (Chernobyl disaster), sometimes generic (acid rain, soil erosion). Often, it was unclear what the link with globalization might be (especially in the case of Chernobyl).

Analyse the causes and environmental consequences of the international relocation of polluting industries.

“Barriers to globalization are no longer falling but are rising instead.” Discuss this statement.

AO1/2 indicative content:

• The international relocation of polluting industries refers primarily to the global shift of manufacturing from the developed to the developing world; also credit the increased uptake of outsourcing contracts by manufacturers in lower-wage economies.
• The main cause is avoidance of high labour and land costs, and “red tape” in developed countries; but the movement may also be market-driven if new industries are being established in proximity to emerging markets. Another theme might be international movements of recycling industries (and linked flows of e-waste).
• The consequences for people and places vary according to context. They may include impacts on the atmosphere/hydrosphere/biosphere, and short- or long-term health costs for societies.

Good answers may make use of detailed exemplification and/or specialist terminology. Or they may analyse the varied types of cause and environmental consequence, perhaps for different categories of polluting industry, in a well-structured (AO4) way. Another approach might be to analyse some of the temporal (long-term) and spatial (pattern) dimensions of the consequences.

Band D credit may be given for the use of any case studies which illustrate changing global patterns of economic activity – including inward investment, outsourcing, and refuse flows – provided that the causes are relevant and the consequences are environmental (rather than social).

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of a narrow range of causes and/or environmental consequences of changing global patterns of economic activity.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced and balanced analysis which includes:

• either varied and detailed causes of changing global patterns of economic activity
• or detailed environmental consequences of international industrial relocation.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Globalization is defined in the subject guide. Real barriers include border controls and walls (political barriers) and virtual firewalls (technological barriers). There are also the real or perceived cultural barriers of language and religion. The concept of a “barrier” is broad and may be interpreted in many ways and from different perspectives.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content:

• falling barriers for data: the shrinking world and time–space convergence [Guide 2]
• falling barriers due to cultural exchange, diaspora growth [Guide 5]
• falling barriers due to the global diffusion of branded commodities [Guide 5]
• increasing barriers for international migration (barriers and/or policies) [Guide 3, 5]
• increasing barriers as governments react to the real or perceived loss of sovereignty through retreat from multigovernmental organizations or increased protectionism [Guide 6, 3]
• isolated societies for whom barriers neither rise nor fall [Guide 7].

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might offer a structured discussion of different categories of barrier
• might systematically discuss both sides of the argument before arriving at a judgement that progresses beyond simply concluding the statement is both true and false (one approach could be to argue that the statement is more true for some types of global interaction than it is for others)
• might address the truth of the statement on different timescales (eg taking a long view rather than focusing on more recent events only).

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide focused on whether or not there are barriers to globalization.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Referring to named countries, analyse how people’s participation in information and communications technology (ICT) networks is changing.

Examine how far the social and environmental costs of globalization can be reduced without also losing its benefits.

The focus here is changing participation. This could refer to people’s participation as either consumers of ICT services or producers eg call centre workers. Candidates should be able to provide one or two examples of trends, developments and/or patterns of adoption at the national scale. They may also offer an overview of the changing global “digital divide”.

• “Participation” by consumers takes many forms, from social media use to remittance transfers.
• Information networks may include broadband internet or mobile/smartphone access.
• Some answers may focus on the increased participation of India and the Philippines in TNC production networks (outsourcing and call centres).
• Some answers may focus on growth on informal ICT services eg new phone app start-ups in Kenya.
• Involvement in e-waste management is a legitimate focus.
• Explanation of changes is not required but can be credited, eg more companies providing citizens with internet access; “middle-class” consumer income growth in many countries; low wages in outsourcing countries.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to systematically analyse changes at varying scales (eg provide a global overview and also one example of a changing national pattern, eg the rural–urban divide). Another approach might be to analyse changing social patterns of in inclusion/exclusion (eg for different income groups, women, the elderly).

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of ICT use in one or more named countries, or an overview of the global “digital divide”.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis that includes:

• either detailed changes/developments in ICT participation in two contexts
• or some variety of ways in which people participate (eg covers changing patterns of consumption and production of ICT services).

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Any aspect of environmental and social costs – and benefits – can be examined. Likely environmental themes include costs for the atmosphere, oceans or tropical rainforest. Social costs include worker exploitation or changes to society linked with the global growth of social media. Any action taken to tackle these costs needs weighing carefully against the benefits of global trade and development. 

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• climate change actions, possibly linked with issues such as the growth of food miles (air freight) [Guide 4] or the growth of polluting transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
• growing environmental awareness fostered via NGOs [Guide 4]
• political (inter-governmental) responses to transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
• the need for global action to prevent loss of tropical rainforest (linked with timber resource use) [Guide 4]
• calls for the regulation of global agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
• recognition that a non-globalized lifestyle [Guide 7] is one that does not enjoy the benefits of economic interactions and flows [Guide 2]
• recognition of the many benefits resulting from the sharing of ideas, information and cultures [Guide 5], which might be jeopardized by anti-global measures [Guide 6/7].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that systematically examines different aspects of globalization that do or do not need managing to reduce their costs. Another approach might be to examine effects at different scales (eg comparing local developmental benefits of industrialization with the global costs of carbon emissions). Another approach might be to examine costs and benefits from varying perspectives (“local sourcing” might be viewed as having more costs than benefits by a farmer who wants to export food globally).

Answers that explain the costs and benefits of globalization but do little to actually address the question directly – that is, how far can these costs actually be reduced/tackled without also losing benefits? – are unlikely to reach band D.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Using examples, analyse the concept of “loss of sovereignty”.

Examine how economic, technological and political factors may all influence the growth of global diaspora populations.

Loss of sovereignty is principally understood in political and/or economic terms. It encompasses the diminishing effectiveness of political borders and subsequent changes in flow of goods/capital/labour/ideas and perhaps the location of economic activities. These changes may be viewed by governments and/or citizens as the ceding of power/independence in potentially problematic ways.

The concept is most likely explored in relation to the growth of multi-governmental organizations such as the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. In the case of the EU, there are additional governance and currency issues to perhaps consider.

However, the concept of sovereignty is even broader than this in some people’s view, and may also be taken to include:

• the shift in power away from states and towards TNCs as a result of their economic size and dominance. This may be linked with the state’s loss of direct control over its own resources (oil, minerals)
• largely inescapable cultural changes such as loss of native languages and customs, beyond state control (and the associated concepts of cultural imperialism and the shrinking world)
• IMF/World Bank or other “top-down” assistance that comes with strings attached eg structural adjustment (SAPs)
• free trade and abandonment of protectionism could lead to changes which increase dependency on other trading partners.

Other interpretations of “loss of sovereignty” may be credited provided some change/loss over time features in the account.

For band C, two impacts of a powerful global/top-down force or change (such as an MGO, TNCs or information flows) should be described that have some bearing on a recognizable state’s independence/autonomy.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of exemplified impacts or a briefer account that conceptualizes what “loss of sovereignty” might involve.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the growth of diasporas – globally dispersed populations of common ancestry/ethnicity/religion. An effective examination should give consideration to all three, economic, technological and political factors.

The factors give rise to migration which in turn generates diaspora growth. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of diaspora populations must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons for migration between different countries).

Possible themes linked to diaspora growth include:

• active role of diaspora source nations in the growth of diasporas [Guide 5]
• shrinking world, including transnational family connectivity using ICT, or cheaper/easier means to disperse eg cheaper air flights [Guide 2]
• many of the political controls on global interactions can discourage migration and thus diaspora growth eg nationalism, anti-immigration rhetoric/policies [Guide 6] or controls on technology eg internet censorship [Guide 2]
• key role of economic labour flows as a global interaction [Guide 3]
• growth of EU has aided growth of “instant” diasporas within Europe due to freedom of movement [Guide 5]
• roots of globalization in empires of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries established patterns of post-colonial migration between global periphery and core [Guide 1] and eg growth of African diasporas in Europe/Americas
• global homogenization of landscapes [Guide 4] and consumer culture [Guide 5] may make different places become more familiar, so becomes less of a wrench to migrate overseas
• poverty might limit out-migration from the poorest countries of the global periphery [Guide 2].

Good answers that score highly at AO3 may additionally examine how the three different factors are interrelated (particularly within the context of the free movement of people within the EU), or may examine how the factors can both encourage or discourage migration. Another approach might be to examine explicitly the relative importance of the three factors in different contexts.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of all three factors with supporting details (do not expect balance), or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically examines the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using examples, analyse the role civil societies play in national resistance to global interactions.

Examine the ways in which the world’s cities and their societies are becoming increasingly uniform.

AO1/2 Indicative content
Civil society is defined in the geography guide as: “Any organization or movement that works in the area between the household, the private sector and the state to negotiate matters of public concern. Civil societies include non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, trade unions, academic institutions and faith-based organizations.”

Citizens can:

• form anti-globalization movements and groups (eg Occupy)
• vote for/establish nationalist parties/policies (anti-immigration eg UKIP; resource nationalism)
• support local sourcing or other initiatives
• organize resistance movements against globalization/global capitalism/modernity which are informed by their ethnicity/identity (eg First Nations in Canada; Ogoni in Nigeria; Amish in USA).

Credit other valid forms of civil society resistance in particular national contexts.

Do not credit government or state actions. Do not credit actions of TNCs.

Good answers are likely to provide detailed exemplification. They are also likely to make a better effort to analyse “the role” that citizens/organizations play in determining how a country/government responds to global interactions/globalization (direct and indirect, or lawful and illegal means, for example). Or they may be more
selective in the way they analyse global interactions (eg by breaking this concept into constituent parts such as flows of migrants, imports, data, etc).

For band C (4–6), an outline should be provided of either the general resistance role of civil society or two weakly-evidenced examples of civil society resistance.

For band D (7–8), expect a structured, well-evidenced analysis of

• either two or more detailed examples of civil society resistance
• or the varied ways civil society plays a role in resisting global interactions.

For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Possible AO1/2 Indicative content

Uniformity in this context refers to global homogeneity, ie all places coming to resemble one another through the adoption of common visual styles and forms. While it can be argued that many cities are becoming increasingly uniform, the proposition needs to be examined more carefully in the context of societies (many of which now have record levels of diversity due to migration).

• Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:urban landscape/styles
• migrants/diaspora/ethnic neighbourhoods
• presence of TNCs/logos/brands
• cultural uniformity (languages spoken, foods consumed, restaurants)
• technology and the “global village” and time–space compression.

Do not over-credit answers that argue against the proposition that places are becoming uniform: this is not asked for. However, it is perfectly acceptable to reflect critically on the degree of uniformity as part of the examination of the statement.

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might be structured around an examination of different aspects and degrees of uniformity (eg contrasts entirely homogenous “clone towns” with cities that have retained a greater degree of including character/heritage, and some examination of the reasons for this)
• might examine more carefully the distinction between the city landscape and the actual societies that live there (which can be very diverse, despite an apparently “uniform” landscape).

For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide which focus on how cities/societies are becoming uniform.

For band D (9–12), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.

Analyse the consequences of one specific transboundary pollution event.

“The negative effects of globalization on cultural traits have been overstated.” Discuss this statement.

A transboundary pollution event is one which has damaging effects for more than one country. It is most likely that candidates will analyse a major oil spill or air pollution event. “Event” strongly suggests a single dated occurrence but some credit should still be given to an account of a more pervasive problem (such as acid rain). Thus, for band E, the account must clearly relate to transboundary pollution (thus the pollution type is named, for example, sulphur dioxide or crude oil; affected states are clearly identified). Further, the temporal aspect should be addressed: if not a single event (for example, an oil spill) then a period (year or decade) must be identified (giving us a broad interpretation of “event”). An account of acid rain that is not geographically or historically specific should not move beyond band C. If both are there, band E is possible.

It should be made explicit who is affected and why the event is “transboundary”. The consequences may include: immediate ecological and environmental harm; longer clear-up operations; subsequent changes in national and/or international legislature; implications for the polluter (such as poor publicity and “PR nightmare” for TNCs).

The best answers may have a range of varied consequences (such as political/governance response) and will not simply focus on ecological damage.

Pollution events such as the Bhopal incident are not transboundary but may achieve band C if the concept of transnational has been well explored (idea of TNCs moving their pollution/unsafe operations overseas). The movement of recycling wastes to China may be marked in the same way (it is hardly an event, but some limited credit for the transboundary/transnational aspects of the case study could be given if it has been well written).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The negative effects candidates should be familiar with include the threat of cultural homogenization associated with the diffusion of western, and latterly Japanese, cultural traits and branded commodities. In extreme cases this can be described as cultural imperialism [Guide 5]. The cultural production of homogenized landscapes may be commented on [Guide 4].

The question invites discussion of whether this first viewpoint has been overstated. The strongest responses will recognize alternative responses exist and globalization can be challenged/contested. They may suggest a variety of alternative outcomes, for example, hybridization/glocalization of branded products [Guide 7], or growth of diaspora music and art that draws on global influences [Guide 5]. More extreme forms of rejection also exist, such as throwing out TNCs and the IMF [Guide 3] or the resistance of nationalist parties to MGO membership [Guide 6]. At a local level, people may “opt out” and pursue strategies such as local sourcing of food (food preferences being a cultural trait) [Guide 7].

The persistence of diaspora traits is also clear evidence of cultural resilience (that is, the idea that cultural traits can easily survive) [Guide 5]. Equally, it may be argued that some cultures have remained free of global influences by choice, for example, Bhutan [Guide 7].

The process of cultural homogenization – if it exists – can be very complex and alternative viewpoints should be credited on their merits.

At bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected if the candidate has a strong, evidenced argument that mostly agrees or disagrees with the title.

A wide variety of cultural traits can be accepted, including any that are not specifically mentioned in the syllabus. Answers that rely heavily on just one or two case studies (especially if their relevance to contemporary globalization is spurious, such as early encounters between westerners and the Dani tribe) are likely to be too narrow to receive much credit for assessment objective 3 and are unlikely to progress beyond band C.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

A checklist for an appropriate example of a transboundary pollution event has three boxes to tick. Candidates should ask:

• Is it an example of human-induced pollution, such as sulphur emissions?
• Is the example transboundary? (While many used the recent BP Gulf of Mexico oil spill, few were able to describe any legitimate transboundary effects.)
• Can they describe their case study as an "event" – something of a clearly stated duration? (This might be a single event such as a nuclear accident, but could be a longer-duration event such as Kuwaiti oil fires, or even acid rain during the1970s or possibly ozone depletion in the early 1980s, whereas "global warming" since 1750 is hard to justify as an "event".)

The examples that worked best were Chernobyl (although this is a slightly antiquated example, its effects are still felt today) and the far more recent Japanese tsunami (which quickly became a transboundary event, with nuclear radiation detected on the US Pacific coast within two weeks of the explosion).

A few more sketch maps would have been useful here, as some case studies were poorly located and the spatial extent of the pollution weakly understood. Among weaker candidates, the interpretation of "consequences" tended to be quite limited and almost entirely short-term and overwhelmingly negative, even for events that actually led to substantial improvements in practice, regulations and legislation.

The provocative statement forced weaker candidates to attempt some sort of evaluation and to therefore present conflicting evidence, which was pleasing to see. The most popular themes were the modernization of indigenous peoples and the glocalization concept. Urban landscapes were sometimes included too. A few tackled diaspora but not many. Given that this is a geography exam, there was a disappointing lack of attention to scale. What is happening at a planetary level (loss of languages etc.) is very different from what happens at a local scale in world cities/global hubs, where diversity has never been greater or richer in many cases.

Overly historical accounts should be discouraged as the focus is meant to be contemporary globalization (which is widely accepted as either a post-war or even post-1980s phenomenon). The best responses were synthetic and covered five or six themes; in contrast, many weaker answers devoted two pages to the trials and tribulations of the Dani tribe and one page to the contents of McDonald’s menus, resulting in a mediocre performance overall.

Explain how agro-industrialization contributes to environmental degradation.

“Cultural diffusion is a process that takes place in many ways but can be halted by many barriers.” Discuss this statement.

The term agro-industrialization describes commercial, large-scale agricultural operations (typically conducted by/on behalf of TNCs such as Cargill, Monsanto, Nestle, McDonald’s etc.).

Degradation may be mapped at local or global scales, and themes may include: carbon emissions/food miles, biodiversity losses, water extraction/water scarcity/water footprint issues, soil erosion/nutrient depletion, eutrophication, sedimentation, forest/mangrove losses, “virtual water” losses. There are many other possible themes.

To access band C, a range of ideas should be explained (expect at least two in some depth, or the briefer outlining of a wider range). For band E, expect some named locations to be mentioned, or different types/sectors of agro-industry to be identified, or good links to be established with the actions of named agro-industrial TNCs.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Pathways for cultural diffusion include the movements of workers and tourists who carry cultural traits with them [Guide 5]. A wide variety of traits could be explored, such as language, religion, arts and music, cuisine, fashion etc. The movement of commodities and the diffusion of the internet and films, orchestrated by technology, TNCs and global media corporations respectively, are other key ways in which “messages” are transmitted [Guide 2]. Military and imperial ventures could also be discussed. A “Trojan horse” strategy of contemporary glocalization [Guide 7] could be explored – wherein western cultural icons (for example, denim, burgers etc.) gain access to foreign markets by donning “cultural camouflage”). MGO membership – notably the EU – also aids cultural transfers by easing restrictions on a variety of flows and pathways for cultural diffusion (such as greater freedom of movement for people or goods) [Guide 6].

The barriers may be physical, political, economic or cultural and they can include nationalism and anti-globalization movements and sentiments [Guide 6 and 7]. A range of local responses could be explored that challenge cultural imperialism [Guide 5] or at least negotiate glocalized outcomes in ways that restrict the pace of cultural change (censorship of Google in China is one example).

To access bands D and E, the answer should be well balanced between coverage of the processes themselves and of possible barriers to their operation. The best answers may look beyond a “black and white” world (where processes of exchange either do or do not operate) and might critically explore ways in which global cultural exchanges are negotiated locally, resulting in partial or selective transfers of culture that bring into being new hybridized cultural forms (language, art, music or cuisine often show a “fusion” of different influences).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Many candidates reached bands C and D of the markscheme by providing a range of valid examples of degradation linked to some degree with "large-scale" agriculture. Often, the explanations (for example, of eutrophication) were in-depth. However, a precise understanding of – or exemplification of – actual agro-industrialization was at times lacking. Thus, a very good answer might note that "cattle ranchers producing meat for McDonald's have to carry out their activities on an enormous scale to meet rising global demand. This is resulting in mass removal of forest both for ranching and for growing cattle food, for example, soya in Brazil". (Incidentally, blanket statements were sometimes made which were not necessarily accurate – for example, deforestation in Brazil is now less due to cattle ranching and more likely linked to Brazilian agriculture's turn towards soya production.)

Candidates are, by and large, beginning to show good familiarity with cultural geography themes and concepts. Even weaker candidates could name-drop cultural imperialism and glocalization as important ideas to be reckoned with. Strong answers properly discussed the statement. For example, some good candidates queried whether glocalization should be seen primarily as evidence that globalization gets "halted" by cultural barriers (that require TNCs to make changes to their products); or whether the practice of glocalization offers proof that TNCs will always find ways to overcome cultural/religious/economic/political barriers. Good answers to this question often showed very good understanding of the synthetic aspect of the question and were able to weave their way around the guide fairly expertly.

Explain the role of ICT in the growth of international outsourcing.

“Environmental degradation is the inevitable outcome of global economic interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Outsourcing is the concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them (eg one company employing another company to produce goods or services rather than manufacture them “in-house” at a branch plant or back-office owned by the first company). International outsourcing consists of the means by which a domestic firm asks a foreign firm to produce a specified product, component or service, for which it can perhaps supply the inputs and transfer technology and technical assistance to the producer. Different sectors of industry (from agribusiness to call centres) use ICT in different ways to support outsourcing.

Links with ICT might include: outsourced office and quaternary/research work that is enabled via ICT and the movement of bundled files, data, use of Skype, etc. Many back-office services eg call centres, accountancy, have been moved to India from UK/USA for instance; and France to North Africa (the role of other factors eg availability of European language speakers, may be commented on). Some answers may comment on how the trend has changed over time in line with technological advancements. Also credit more general ideas about using ICT to research outsourcing destinations, or to transfer payments to client companies.

ICT also helps with inventories, just-in-time ordering from suppliers, etc, thereby supporting outsourcing of other sectors of industry including manufacturing and food. For bands D and E, expect a broad analysis of the role of ICT that has some good supporting details of outsourcing (and is likely to offer a definition).

Performance at band C is likely to be narrower (very limited range of outsourcing examples) and/or may lack much/any evidence of where/when outsourcing has taken place (or may get side-tracked by describing in depth the evolution of ICT, or ICT led global interactions, with little explicit focus on outsourcing ).

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The terms “environmental degradation” and “global economic interactions” are both broad; either, or both, may be deconstructed to provide some essay structure.

Commodity movements (raw materials, agro-industrial produce, e-waste) are important forms of economic interaction [Guide 4]. Global economic interactions also comprise financial flows ie loans, aid, debt repayment, FDI [Guide 3]. Migration, tourism and online financial transactions may also be included [Guide 3].

A broad interpretation of “degradation” should be credited [Guide 4]. Environmental degradation can take many forms, with the geography guide suggesting candidates become familiar with impacts of tourism [Guide 5], agro-industrialization, air freighting (food miles), waste movements and transboundary pollution events [Guide 4]. Other suggestions may be made drawing on other parts of the geography course, and these should be credited. Weaker answers may neglect to link these impacts with specific global interactions (may assert that “businesses” cause deforestation but say little about why they are doing so/where demand is coming from/who the actual TNCs are). Do not over-credit pollution events that do not relate to global interactions (eg Chernobyl) or are weakly related.

Good answers may cast the net wider eg addressing the carbon footprint of financial flows such as online trading (relying on the use of ICT requiring electricity); or may look at how the burden of debt may result in an increase in environmentally damaging practices such as logging; or may look at the environmental impacts of FDI-led development eg Bhopal (India) or Shell (Niger delta) or BP (Gulf of Mexico).

Counter-arguments may include the limited impacts of online interactions; or the measures taken by TNCs or other actors to minimize environmental impacts including climate change “carbon-neutral” initiative and other mitigation measures (actions of NGOs eg WWF). Credit any attempt made to stress the lower-impact nature of certain activities (good answers may even question the level of damage that constitutes actual “degradation”, or may contrast local and global scale degradation).

At band C, there could be a conclusion that disagrees with the statement, but purely on the basis of the discussion of a very narrow range of interactions (eg has simply contrasted internet use with oil spills) or impacts (but global interactions not clear).

For band D there should be a synthesis of several evidenced interactions and impacts, or a properly evidenced conclusion that provides a considered viewpoint, or gives an overview, about the impacts of different global interactions on the environment. At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Many candidates floundered over the term “outsourcing” even though it is clearly defined in the subject guide. Thankfully, the role of ICT was more successfully tackled. Thus, even if outsourcing was not fully understood, marks were picked up for analysing the key role of technology and the process of time–space compression. Those that attempted the question generally knew something about call centres in India, though it was often simply asserted technology had “made it happen” before writing at length about other factors (for example, the English language being spoken in India), which was not answering the question directly. The best answers addressed the stem phrase “the role of” and understood that an analysis of multiple roles would, logically, gain more marks. Thus, as well as Bangalore’s success, they also explored how computer-aided just-in-time procurement allows TNC retailers, such as Tesco or Carrefour, to effectively liaise with Kenyan agribusinesses in their supply chain. Generally, it was good to see limited conceptual slippage between supply chain outsourcing and a TNC’s own internal spatial division of labour (while the factors that drive the growth of both are similar, they are far from being the same thing).

A lot of weak answers were seen here, as has already been commented on. These were of the “human impact” variety. Many candidates wrote about how economic activity frequently has adverse effects on the environment, but did no more than imply that there is some link with globalization. Many of the impacts written about could have happened in isolation from global interactions, such as acid rain on a country’s own doorstep on account of its own power stations. The worst example of this is the common assertion that the USSR adopted nuclear power “because of globalization” and this led to the Chernobyl disaster. Similar problems arise with the use of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill. Candidates do not link deep-sea oil exploration with globalization in a meaningful way, other than to tell us that BP is a TNC. One suggestion might be for candidates to at least note that global economic growth and the spread of wealth (notably so amongst the middle classes of the BRIC nations) has hastened the approach of peak oil; thus energy TNCs are forced towards riskier deep ocean operations, or must make greater use of non-conventional fossil fuels (fracking). Similar issues arise with the way deforestation, climate change, soil erosion and eutrophication are commonly handled whenever an “environment” question is set on paper 3. Very general answers are commonplace that do not locate these impacts nor link them with the actions of recognizable global actors, such as TNCs. Very few candidates can name an actual agribusiness, such as Cargill.

Using examples, distinguish between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement.

“Due to global interactions, there is no longer a global periphery.” Discuss this statement.

Transboundary pollution (TBP) is pollution that crosses a national border accidently or inadvertently due to physical processes (atmosphere, currents, etc). Recent examples of transboundary pollution (TBP) include forest fires in Indonesia causing smog in Singapore; Chinese pollution reaching Japan; and radiation from Fukushima reaching the shores of the USA. Also credit acid rain (if clearly shown to be transboundary) and credit Chernobyl (1986). [The Gulf of Mexico oil spill was not a TBP event because only the USA was affected. Candidates using this example only may still attain band D according to other criteria, but ought not be awarded band E.]

Transnational waste movement (TWM) includes landfill in China originating in USA; European e-waste arriving in Accra (Ghana); ship-breaking in Bangladesh; Trafigura’s chemical waste from Europe arriving in Ivory Coast. This is a purposeful/intended global interaction/trade transaction. It is acceptable to view discarded household goods (eg clothes for charity) as a form of waste. Waste can also be a very valuable resource when recycled, so TWM can be seen as a positive interaction. Good answers are likely to provide detailed exemplification. They are also likely to make a better effort to distinguish (beyond simply employing comparative language such as “whereas”): eg TBP may involve the dispersal of point source pollution into multiple territories whereas TWM is a movement from one territory to another; TBP has negative impacts/costs money but TWM can also be positive/makes money; TBP is accidental but TWM is deliberate, etc).

For band C, expect some description of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance).

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance) or a good attempt to distinguish between them.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The global periphery may be defined as regions outside/beyond the core. Historically, some states were identified as being peripheral due to their spatial distance/isolation or lack of integration into economic and political systems. In 2015, this idea of peripheral states is only a very basic/antiquated starting point. A contemporary account might acknowledge also the existence of semi-peripheral states (middle-income countries) or the presence of important global hubs/cores such as Lagos in states that some people might still view as being part of a global periphery.

Another approach might be to discuss the extent to which various global flows and interactions (from international aid to social networks) have networked/connected the majority of the world’s states and a large proportion of their peoples. To give a counterargument, examples might be cited of isolated states and regions, from which we can infer the existence of a “global periphery”.

Possible themes include:

• economic globalization of low-income countries through trade, aid, loans [Guide 3] that may originate in EU/USA “core” countries but also emerging economies/BRICs/NICs [Guide 1 and 3]
• cultural interactions between countries in the core and periphery [Guide 5]
• isolated states eg North Korea, China (culturally); non-globalized tribal groups [Guide 6 and 7]
• the “shrinking world” effect that brings connectivity to previously peripheral places [Guide 3]
• branded commodities and global media that help to connect places through the growth of a common “core” culture (possibly modified by glocalization) which more and more places share [Guide 5].

Good answers may discuss differing degrees of “peripheral” states (perhaps including semiperiphery, non-globalized periphery). Another approach might be to discuss the multi-scale existence of core and periphery patterns (recognizing the global importance of world cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America). Another approach might be to discuss what is meant by “global interactions” in the context of this question (referring to a variety of trade flows, aid flows, migration flows, information flows, etc).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how global interactions have contributed to the disappearance/persistence/modification of a “global periphery” of places/people. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Most candidates understood clearly the difference between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement. Relevant examples were used, although the detail and accuracy was variable. Very few used Fukushima as a case study, preferring to use the 30-year-old Chernobyl example instead. This is a pity and clearly goes against the ethos of the course which is stated on page 13 of the geography guide. The best answers understood the significance of the command term “distinguish” and were awarded full marks accordingly.

A handful of excellent answers showed deep understanding of how global interactions have modified the previously binary world system (the “north/south” or “core/periphery” of the immediate post-war period). They wrote about the evolution of a far more complex world, beginning with the rise of the Asian Tigers in the 1950s. Other strong answers dealt with the statement on a flow-by-flow basis and understood that a country like China could be regarded as being part of an economic core but had chosen to remain peripheral to social networks such as Facebook. Weaker answers tended to focus mainly on isolated tribes and the Sahel as non-globalized places. Done well, however, band D was still achievable through the use of this narrow approach.

Explain why the landscapes of major world cities are becoming increasingly similar.

“Global interactions are putting all the world’s wealth into the hands of a small number of people and countries.” Discuss this statement.

The focus should be an explanation of the landscapes of major world cities eg Sao Paulo, New York, Cape Town, Singapore, Mumbai, Barcelona, Dublin etc. These settlements may house “cloned” retailing districts and ubiquitous branded commodities (expect references to McDonald’s and Starbucks); also, a suggestion of “universal” modernist architecture in financial and housing districts (expect a range of examples in stronger responses); also, a broader response may encompass the proliferation of cultural and religious signs and symbols as a result of migration and diaspora (eg mosques, synagogues, churches all present in major world cities/global hubs). Metro-style transport networks are a common shared feature.

Explanation may include: the global influence of property developers (retail/financial/housing) key architects and their firms; inter-urban competition (eg status competition for the highest, or most modern-looking buildings); the power of TNCs to project global advertising messages in urban environments (and perhaps regulatory changes or trade bloc enlargements assisting their global expansion); rising affluence in emerging economies (thus enticing McDonald’s, etc); the “shrinking world” effect (the global diffusion of architectural styles, etc); migration leading to landscape changes; historical connections (colonial architecture).

The question does not require counter-argument although some may note that “similar” is not equivalent to “same” due to the survival of local architecture. The focus invites an overview of the world’s major cities/urban landscapes and the best answers may cite examples drawn from both developed world cities and those of some emerging economies eg “Asian Tigers”, Middle East, BRIC nations.

Band C answers are likely to be descriptive (lacking explanation) of urban homogenization, or explain cultural/global homogenization but without a landscape/city focus.

For band D, at least two reasons for urban/landscape homogenization should be well explained, or a wider range of reasons for cultural homogenization are explained in less detail and some links are made with urban landscapes. Band E should provide breadth and depth of explanation, with some variety of landscape exemplification.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The broadest macro-scale distributional contrasts should be clearly highlighted – including the high growth rates of emerging economies, especially those of China and India (can be used to support or argue against the question) and the continued lack of FDI for the poorest 50 LDCs. A historical view might contrast the historical Brandt Line north-south wealth distribution with today’s more complex pattern of cores [Guide 1]. Good answers may even appreciate the recent relative underperformance and loss of share of wealth of established core regions (Japan, USA, Eurozone). Answers should be focused on wealth, rather than “importance” and may have supporting data, eg GDP figures or income data or use of Gini index data. These changes may be linked with a range of explanatory reasons relating to economic interactions including FDI, remittances, aid etc. [Guide 3], changes in global participation [Guide 1] or geopolitical change and interaction [Guide 6].

The benefits of globalization are not evenly spread within nations and this is a reason for resistance from some groups [Guide 5/7]. One approach might be to examine the claim that “the rich get richer while the poor get poorer” and describe evidence for worker poverty within some nations, linked to FDI/TNCs [Guide 3], outsourcing or agro-industry employment [Guide 4]. Societies that have been excluded from global interactions (indigenous tribes, etc) may also be discussed [Guide 7].

Good answers may address the question at different scales, or may suggest a complex global pattern of “haves” and “have-nots” (perhaps by identifying wealth in the Middle East or East Asia, or highlighting the persisting poverty of the poorest LDCs eg Mali). The best answers may distinguish between relative and absolute levels of wealth. As the rich have got richer, the poor may hold a lessened share of wealth – this is not the same thing as losing wealth.

Band C responses may assert the statement is correct/incorrect, based on a narrow range of supporting ideas, lacking much specific evidence/information.

For band D there should be a synthesis of several evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion that provides a considered/balanced viewpoint/overview, clearly related to the changing distribution of global wealth. At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

There were some very descriptive answers seen, as commented on above. A commonly-made assertion was that TNCs “arrive” and transform the landscape. But why are TNCs arriving in Jakarta, Phnom Penh, Mumbai, Mombasa, Sao Paulo, and so on? Too many geography candidates are unable to meaningfully articulate why the world around us is changing. In strong answers, there was some recognition of the wealth growth amongst the new middle classes in global hubs such as Sao Paulo, attracting the interest of global capital. Good responses sometimes looked at the role of “re-branding” (modernizing the city, using cutting-edge architectural design) in order to attract further FDI (multiplier ideas). Some middle-ability candidates, however, lost focus on “major” world cities and wrote instead about small settlements (for example, “clone towns” in the UK, for which some credit could be gained provided the explanation was good and pertinent to the actual question set). Significant numbers wrote an inappropriate answer concerned with the Burgess concentric ring model, and asserted that this was a “universal” landscape (hence, they argued erroneously that all landscapes, from Tokyo to Illinois, must become the same in time, in strict line with Burgess’s wishes).

The general level of understanding in middle-ability responses to this question is also a cause for concern. Very few candidates seemed to show appropriate understanding of 21st century global economic geography. Not one single candidate, for instance, was seemingly aware that the McDonald’s franchises in India are 50% native-owned. Instead, the entire cohort asserted that “all the profits go to the USA”. Several more widely-used case studies suffered similarly from out-of-date, or just plain incorrect, content. Candidates had little or no knowledge of TNCs based in the BRIC or “Tiger” economies, such as Tata, Shanghai Electric or Samsung. Very few possessed up-to-date information about the world’s emerging middle class, such as the 40 million-strong C class in Brazil, who have enjoyed significant gains in consumption since the 1990s (though not in citizenship, which has been the focus of the recent riots in Brazil). It is, of course, entirely appropriate for candidates to be concerned with continuing poverty in parts of Africa, and the role that TNCs may play in perpetuating this. It is also true that a minority of billionaires monopolize a huge chunk of the world’s wealth, however, higher level diploma geography candidates should surely recognize that there is more to the changing global pattern of wealth than this. One good starting point for updating content is this recent McKinsey report: http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class

Explain how global core areas (hubs) can be distinguished from peripheral areas.

Examine the geographical consequences of international outsourcing.

Candidates would be expected to define “global core areas/hubs” as significant places that provide a focal point for global flows and activities. They are places where major diaspora groups may be found or may be identified as source regions either for contemporary cultural diffusion (for example, Seattle’s computer industries) or economic imperialism (for example, Washington). The scale at which hubs can be identified is open to interpretation. Small cities like Cambridge (UK) are hubs, but so too are megacities such as Sao Paulo and small states including Monaco and Luxemburg.

Arguably, entire nations such as Singapore and South Korea could be described as hubs at which point the term hub is almost synonymous with “core” in world systems analysis. But an appropriate “core and periphery” analysis in 2011 should not simply echo 1970s World Systems theory. Responses that do not acknowledge this and do not examine more than a simple “MEDC–LEDC” worldview (for example, by at least acknowledging a semi-periphery of emerging economies/NICs) should not progress beyond band C. (Within bands D and E, a good explanation of a fuller range of characteristics could compensate for a more limited description of the hub/periphery pattern.)

At bands D and E, answers need to be focused on how such places can be distinguished from other places and should not just assert that they exist. People and organizations in hubs will display high levels of global participation which could be measured using KOF or AT Kearney indices. They may also host major diasporas or can be mapped as source regions for key “globalized” cultural traits including language (such as English or Spanish). Mapping the head offices of large TNCs is another route of inquiry. Other routes could include a ranking of the competitiveness of financial centres, airports, ports, internet bandwidth availability, reliance on agriculture.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Outsourcing should be clearly defined as the concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them [Guide 3]. “Geographical consequences” of outsourcing can encompass economic, political, social, cultural, environmental, geopolitical and demographic themes at varying scales, for both host and source regions. Outsourcing occurs across all sectors of industry from agriculture to high-tech research. It can be a complex affair when strings of sub-contractors (both upstream and downstream linkages) are part of the picture.

Improvements in ICT are an important consequence (due to the need for enhanced videoconferencing capability etc.) and not merely a cause of outsourcing [Guide 2, Guide 3]. So too are trade blocs (MGOs), insofar as businesses will lobby for expanded tariff-free trade areas within which they may outsource at lower cost to themselves [Guide 6].

At a national and local (city region) scale, a key theme must be the reaction to loss of jobs in “source” economies [Guide 7], but growth for emerging “host” economies. Sweatshop workers may be cast as “victims” or beneficiaries of global capitalism in this account according to the case studies used (outsourcing includes “white collar” work in Bangalore, for instance) or the candidate’s political convictions (although exploitation needs to be evidenced and not simply asserted). TNC shareholders may be recognized as being among the real winners of outsourcing [Guide 3].

Environmental aspects are likely to be a popular theme, notably in relation to pollution [Guide 4]. However, high band answers should make it clear that the problems result from outsourcing (so unreliable sub-contractors are the issue) and not simply the internationalization of trade.

It may not always be clear whether genuine outsourcing or a firm’s own division of labour is being discussed (for example, as a cause of de-industrialization in developed countries). The benefit of the doubt should be given and a band D mark could be awarded to answers that are insecure on the precise meaning of outsourcing but are strong on the varied geography of global shift.

There are many possible approaches and these should be assessed on their merits. Depth might compensate for lack of breadth.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

This question produced a disappointing set of responses on the whole. Too many candidates merely asserted, wrongly, that a simplistic MEDC–LEDC divide still exists. There was next to no acknowledgment of globally important hubs such as Mumbai or Sao Paulo or other key settlements in emerging economies (or peripheral "LEDCs" as they were portrayed in most accounts, despite the BRIC group’s key role in driving global GDP growth today). Overall, the cohort showed poor understanding of contemporary economic geography and the global pattern of hub regions.

The use of the word "hub" in the guide, and in this question, ought to be a clear signal to centres that the core–periphery literature dating from the 1970s is not, in itself, sufficient background reading for the current global interactions course. Candidates who relied exclusively on this outdated framework found themselves erroneously describing a global system within which a global periphery, that includes China and India, continues to provide raw materials for the manufacturing firms found in developed countries. Examiners were left wondering whether, in other contexts, such candidates would be able to explain the rise of the Asian tigers and BRIC economies, or the de-industrialization of the old global core.

Thus a widespread lack of familiarity with the concept of emerging economies as new global hubs (which must surely come from examining the latest KOF or Kearney indices) was seen. There was little mention of the activities of the world’s financial hubs (which have triggered the global economic turndown that now surrounds us).

The concept of scale was clearly the biggest problem. There was a lack of comprehension that world cities in middle-income and low-income nations can nonetheless be global hubs. Effective teaching about globalization and global interactions needs to move beyond the nation state as the only frame of reference for patterns of wealth and connectivity.

Outsourcing is clearly defined in the guide. Many themes pertaining both to foreign direct investment and also outsourcing, such as financial flows, transboundary pollution and the factors encouraging the growth of multi-governmental organizations are scattered through the guide. Good candidates who were familiar with the synthetic nature of the part (b) essay mode of assessment rose to the occasion. The best answers came complete with plans that included positive and negative (or short-term and long-term) impacts, sub-divided into themed consequences such as economic [Guide 2/3]), environmental [Guide 4], political [Guide 6],  and social [Guide 7].

Well-informed candidates were thus able to highlight how global networks of outsourcing have helped drive the trend towards regional trade bloc integration. Elsewhere, outsourcing was seen as a factor that can be responsible for poor health and safety standards (some asserted, perhaps correctly, that this was the cause of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill). Outsourcing of back office functions to India was a popular theme, whose consequences were seen as being both positive (rising incomes) and sometimes negative (long and unsociable hours for call centre workers).

Some discussed the social reaction/anti-globalization movements against outsourcing (linked with de-industrialization, for example, of US manufacturing hubs). A few even argued that outsourcing has introduced new kinds of geographical risks for TNCs who find their supply chains disrupted by recent hazards such as Thai floods, Japan’s tsunami and Icelandic ash clouds. This is a truly synthetic theme and one that future candidates could be encouraged to explore further.

In contrast, weaker candidates were uncertain as to the exact nature of outsourcing and were clearly not able to differentiate between outsourcing and FDI (for instance, when discussing the relocation of US manufacturing to the Mexican maquiladoras). If a good range of consequences were developed, however, such candidates were still allowed to achieve a sound mark.

Explain how global interactions can foster environmental awareness.

“International interactions always result in the homogenization of culture.” Discuss this statement.

There are many possible approaches. Responses may focus on examples of improved awareness in a single country or may consider the global realm of environmental management. Examples of the latter include response to transboundary pollution, such as oil spills or acid rain, and global climate change governance. They may also possess knowledge of global ecological/conservation initiatives such as Ramsar, WWF, and UNESCO.

The work of NGOs such as Greenpeace may also be explored. Candidates may examine the environmental messages that are sent as well as explaining the medium through which they are transmitted/type of global interaction (for example, internet, Facebook etc.).

Another approach is to argue that global interactions are often environmentally damaging and that we cannot help but be aware of them (for example, Gulf of Mexico oil spill or climate change).

Another response might look at how international movements of waste have improved environmental management for source countries who have simply paid to dispose of their problems elsewhere (for example, waste sent to China for recycling) and it may be noted that awareness of this trend is growing.

To access bands D and E, the response should do more than list green initiatives; it should also tie them to the concept of global interactions. Good answers may also ask whose awareness has been raised – civil society, corporations, governments etc.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The nature of international interactions should be made explicit. Pathways for cultural exchanges include the movement of workers, tourists, commodity flows, and military and imperial ventures, all of which can be accelerated by membership of multi-governmental organizations, such as the EU, NAFTA, ASEAN etc. [Guide 6].

It is not true that homogenization is an inevitable outcome. Possible obstacles include nationalism and anti-globalization movements, as well as a range of local responses that challenge cultural imperialism or at least negotiate “glocalized” outcomes [Guide 7].

There is plenty of scope to discuss arts, music, cuisine and other fields of cultural expression, and to investigate hybridized outcomes – or to look at the obduracy of cultural traits among diaspora groups, meaning that cultural diversity is not lost in global hubs such as New York or Toronto [Guide 5].

In support of the statement, expect TNCs to feature, with some mention of “McDonaldization” or a similar argument using Starbucks, Disney etc. as examples, or broad observations about the spread of English and Spanish perhaps employing the concept of cultural imperialism. The strongest answers may critique the notion of glocalization, and question whether the innovation of a “curry burger” for the Indian McDonald’s franchise is truly symptomatic of heterogeneity [Guide 3 and 5].

The role of technology and the internet in fostering homogeneity through the relation of the shrinking world/global village may also be a feature [Guide 2].

To access bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

One striking general weakness observed here was that many responses were insufficiently focused on how global interactions can foster environmental awareness. Answers could often explain "why" (for instance, it was widely argued that global awareness of climate change is inadvertently fostered by the careless polluting actions of TNCs that have come to the public's attention) but could not address "how" (that is, the processes or pathways that link global interactions to environmental awareness).

Good answers sometimes looked at use of global media (old and new) by NGOs; global diffusion of films such as "An Inconvenient Truth" (and the follow-up globetrotting of Al Gore, celebrities and academics, in order to help raise awareness of important issues); or the idea of representatives of nations "interacting" at key global environmental meetings and conferences such as Stockholm, Kyoto, Copenhagen etc. "Environmental awareness" was equated to "hazard awareness" by a few; there is some legitimate topic overlap, but they are really not equivalents and such responses tended to be self-limiting. Overall, there were some very strong answers to this question, the most popular of the three on the paper.

There were some strong answers to this question that used a commendable range of appropriate examples. In many cases, the net was thrown wide, allowing plenty of credit for assessment objective 3 to be awarded as candidates synthesized a mixture of ideas dealing with TNCs, diaspora groups, nationalism, global media and more.

Weaker answers showed little understanding of what "culture" does, or does not, include (and had little idea of cultural traits, for instance). They also tended to see changes of culture in a very simplistic way. For example, many argued that TNCs or other global interactions "destroy" local culture. Most interpreted any change at all as being towards homogenization, even when the influence of incoming cultural forces was limited and a more logical and appropriate conclusion might have been that local culture had undergone "diversification" (pleasingly, some employed terminology such as hybridity or glocalization here). Very few could tackle the more complex yet very useful idea (in this context) of culture as a "performance", for instance, in the context of querying the nature of the "loss" when a local tribe retains its traditional clothing or dances/rituals for the tourist gaze but may simultaneously (and more or less invisibly) be adopting a modern/secular/consumerist worldview. This is a complex idea requiring thoughtful evaluation that sadly eluded the majority (but is in fact very important if ideas of cultural change and exchange are to be properly explored). A sensible conclusion reached by some of the best candidates was that true global diversity (in terms of different languages) has fallen (though offset to some degree by proliferation of new hybrid glocalisms). Whereas at a local level, some global hubs/core regions/megacities have witnessed an increase in cultural diversity due to the global interaction of migration. Toronto and London are extremely diverse world cities (however, the "melting pot" hypothesis suggests this hyper-diversity may be transient – over time, differences may lessen at this scale also, as different cultures intermingle).

Explain how and why glocalization occurs.

Examine the reasons for the resistance to globalization on either the national or local scale.

Candidates would be expected to define the term glocalization and good responses would benefit from using examples. Glocalization is a term that was invented in order to emphasize that the globalization of a product is more likely to succeed when the product or service is adapted specifically to each locality or culture in which it is marketed. The term combines the word globalization with localization.

The increasing presence of McDonald’s restaurants worldwide is an example of globalization, while the restaurant chain’s menu changes in an attempt to appeal to local palates are an example of glocalization. Perhaps even more illustrative of glocalization, for promotions in France, the restaurant chain replaced its familiar Ronald McDonald mascot with Asterix the Gaul, a popular French cartoon character. Similar adaptations are found with other products such as clothes and music.

To attain band D and above responses should clearly explain the term glocalization and are likely to include examples.

Other approaches may be equally valid and should be assessed on their merits.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Resistance to globalization is in response to real or perceived negative change that has occurred or may occur during the process. Answers are likely to examine a range of reasons, including cultural (cultural contrasts, disregard for a particular religion or customs, cultural imperialism), political (domination by other nations or TNCs), economic (domination, possibly including conditions imposed by international institutions such as the IMF, economic leakage from tourism) and environmental (damage from resource exploitation or transfer of polluting industries and waste).

Reaction to the impacts of TNCs may be a catalyst for resistance. Some parts of civil society (including NGOs) may initiate or strengthen resistance, especially in regard to a particular issue. The growth of ICT and the media now means that resistance can be further strengthened at rates that were previously impossible. For instance, the diffusion of anti-globalist sentiment can be carried out via texting or mobile devices, to coordinate protest activity.

Resistance may be spurred on by a resurgence of nationalism. Resistance may also arise in nations that choose to isolate themselves or limit their involvement in globalization.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Using examples, explain the relationship between transport innovation and reduced friction of distance.

“Every country will eventually lose its distinctive national identity as a result of global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Friction of distance is the barrier to the exchange of goods, services, ideas created by slow/limited/expensive transport. Over time, increased connectivity through transport has reduced friction of distance (changing our perception of time/space barriers).

Candidates may explore the relationship through the use of a timeline, and perhaps a diagram, showing how transport times have fallen as a result of successive transport “revolutions” (bicycle, boat, car train, ’plane, etc). Also credit accompanying technologies eg refrigeration for perishables and intermodal transport. Candidates may be familiar with the associated geographical concept of time–space convergence (in other words, we perceive that we inhabit a “shrinking world” as distant places “feel” nearer). Done well, this could be sufficient for the higher mark bands.

A different approach might be to look at more detailed case studies of particular technologies and their application (eg the speed with which flowers from Kenya are flown to Europe; or the speed with which containers can bring manufactured goods from EPZs in China to the USA). This approach is sufficient for band D even if the “relationship” is not particularly clear.

Finally, the subject guide specifies that candidates should have studied speed and capacity changes for two types of transport network. They might draw on this as part of their answer. However, they should be careful to focus on the reduced friction of
distance as the network is modernized, or extended into areas that were previously “switched off” (and thus took a longer time to reach).

Credit may be given for some discussion of the role that telecom networks play in transporting data and information, “eradicating” the friction of distance altogether.

Band C answers are likely to describe some specific details of transport history, but with little/no development of “friction of distance” (besides saying it has lessened).

At band D, expect either a clearer explanation of the changing relationship over time (may use the concept of time–space convergence) or effective use of detailed examples to explain how transport connects distant places together with reduced
travel time.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be national (or group) identity although credit can be given for groups within a nation eg Amish (USA), Welsh (UK), tribes (Amazon). Discussion of a diaspora’s “national” identity (eg the identity of the Chinese in USA) may also be credited. Expect candidates to take a range of approaches and to hold a range of views about what factors or processes make a place distinctive/less distinctive.

Possible themes for discussion in agreement with the statement:

• a range of issues can be discussed pertaining to cultural dilution/cultural imperialism/immigration/multiculturalism [Guide 5]. Different cultural traits may be discussed eg language, diet, music, religion, etc
• evidence may be cited in support of the proposition that increasing cultural homogeneity is unavoidable/irreversible, for instance international migration or the spread of branded commodities [Guide 5] or the homogenization of urban/cultural landscapes [Guide 4]
• sovereign states risk losing political autonomy due to their membership of MGOs (especially the case for the EU) or in relation to wealth/leverage of TNCs [Guide 6], influence of IMF/World Bank [Guide 3]. 

Possible themes for discussion in disagreement with the statement:

• many countries have experienced a resurgence in nationalism/regionalism [Guide 6], for instance as evidenced by programmes of nationalization (Bolivia) or attempts to limit the dominance of English (in France’s case)
• there are instances of states or societies opting out of globalization/isolationism (eg, China’s stance on internet access; North Korea or until recently Myanmar; Amish communities in USA) [Guide 7]
• glocalized/hybrid outcomes can still be highly distinctive or unique [Guide 7]. 

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• national identity has many aspects, not all of which are threatened, eg, by MGO membership [Guide 6]
• other foci for identity may be becoming more important than national identity for many people, eg, diaspora identity.

At band C, some impacts on national/group identity/culture should be described and linked with global interactions such as migration, information flow etc. 

Band D should either provide a wider and more balanced discussion of the statement or offer a more critical discussion of what is meant by “distinctive national identity”.

At band E, expect both.

“Friction of distance” and transport innovation appears to be a well-understood and well-learned area of the curriculum. Even the weakest candidates were able to provide a short descriptive account of different modes of transport improving over time (in terms of the reduced time taken to move people or goods between locations). Many had learned the topic in advance in some depth, with accompanying locational details and data. This was not, however, always sufficient to reach the highest markband available. Some conceptual sophistication was also expected, such as clear, well-explained linkages with the concept of time–space convergence (or time–space compression). Alternatively, greater geographical knowledge was expected of how, in context, the friction of distance has lessened for specific global flows, such as commodity movements, thereby linking specific locales (such as the flower farms sited around Lake Naivasha, Kenya and the flower markets near Old Street, London, England). In contrast, band C answers often provided greater detail of, say, the technical specifications of jet engines, yet went on to merely assert that this allows “people” to “move around the world quicker”.

Many candidates performed a synthesis of the following topics: the influence of the McDonald’s corporation, national membership of trade blocs (especially the EU), the spread of English at the expense of native languages, the erosion of national traditions as a result of indigenous peoples’ contact with tourists, the dissemination of music and film through the internet, the growing homogenization of world cities, the prosperity of diaspora populations, and the resurgence of nationalism as a reaction to globalization (some candidates showed good contemporary knowledge of political movements in the EU). Arranged in a way that provided both support for, and rejection of, the statement, this was usually sufficient for band D. However, the sophistication with which these complex ideas were handled usually left a lot to be desired in work around the C/D boundary (see comments below on how performance could be improved in the future).

Using examples, analyse the role of global interactions in the growth of environmental awareness.

Discuss the reasons for the global diffusion of consumer culture.

AO1/2 indicative content:

• Relevant global interactions may include flows of data and information, such as internet campaigning by civil society organizations. Also credit other types of interaction playing a role, including migrants or tourists who help awareness of issues to diffuse to new places.
• Campaigning may be linked to specific issues, such as transboundary pollution. Environmental awareness is a blanket term covering many issues. Other examples could include global climate change, biodiversity, deforestation, etc.
• Credit the idea that global interactions/globalisation/global development has given rise to environmental challenges (climate change, resource security) and that people are now aware of these issues.

Good answers might offer a structured (AO4) analysis of different types of global interaction (information, commodity flows) or different environmental causes (climate change, biodiversity). Another approach might be to analyse rising environmental awareness in specific contexts, eg the diffusion of environmental awareness to
people in different or new contexts (new consumers in emerging economies).

For band C (4–6 marks), an example of the growth of environmental awareness (such as an NGO campaign or film) will be be outlined and linked weakly with global interactions (such as ICT use, or the global trade flows which cause the issues).

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced analysis of:

• either the role of a range of global interactions (such as data flows and trade flows)
• or two detailed examples of the growth of environmental awareness/ campaigns.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Consumer culture can be understood as a lifestyle in capitalist societies wherein the consumption of goods and services occupies a central role, in terms of people’s use of leisure time, aspirations, and even their personal identity construction. It is sometimes associated negatively with unsustainable/“throwaway” use of commodities/resources. It can also be associated positively with the progression of people beyond poverty and into the consumer classes. Global diffusion patterns include the growth of consumer classes in emerging economies.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content:

• shrinking world technologies and the global diffusion of media/aspirations [Guide 3]
• financial flows from core to periphery regions [Guide 2]
• poverty alleviation, financial flows and the growth of new markets [Guide 3]
• branded commodities and the power of TNCs to build markets [Guide 5]
• migration, tourism and population movements [Guide 3, 5].

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation might:

• critically discuss the relative importance of different reasons/global interactions which either aid diffusion of cultural traits or help to build incomes/markets
• discuss different traits of consumer culture, such as the diffusion of music, fast food, branded commodities, etc
• distinguish between the means of diffusion (eg TNCs) and the reasons why people are receptive to the arrival of “global culture” (eg state policies).

Do not award AO1/2 credit for lengthy case studies of places/countries where consumer culture has not diffused to / has been blocked, such as North Korea. However, some AO3 credit could be awarded for briefly drawing a contrast between liberal states and non-liberal states (such as North Korea) in order to demonstrate the high importance of liberal government as a reason for cultural diffusion.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant reasons/themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes/reasons from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Explain how the actions of world trading organizations and financial institutions (such as the International Monetary Fund) influence global financial flows.

Discuss the economic and environmental consequences of more people choosing to buy locally produced food and goods rather than globalized products.

AO1/2 Indicative content
Credit reference to the IMF, World Bank, WTO, New Development Bank (NDB), China Development Bank. Also credit trading blocs/MGOs such as ASEAN, APEC, NAFTA and EU/EEA.

Financial flows may include:

• loans (with structural adjustment programmes)
• commodities (with the WTO encouraging free trade)
• remittances (linked with EU rules; or development policies of the World Bank)
• movements of capital and FDI (made easier by EU or NAFTA, etc)
• aid flows (providing this can be linked with the work of world trading organizations and financial institutions).

Credit other valid flows and institutions.

Good answers might provide data and evidence for financial flows or they may offer a structured (AO4) explanation of how different institutions influence different types of flow. Another approach might be to explain financial flows in ways that show they are sometimes interrelated and could influence one another (lending can help a country to develop, in turn attracting FDI; this in turn may encourage migration and remittances).

For band C (4–6), two financial flows should be outlined and linked weakly with the influence/actions of one or more financial institutions.

For band D (7–8), expect a structured, well-evidenced analysis of

• either two or more detailed financial flows
• or detailed actions/ influence of different named institutions

For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content

Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:

• fewer food miles
• reduced carbon/ecological footprint / climate change mitigation
• less trade/financial flows between core/periphery (de-globalization)
• renewed economic growth in localities where local production is renewed
• rejection of globalization production / TNCs / falling profits for agribusiness
• reduced interdependency between countries
• protectionism / isolation / less need for MGOs.

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might be structured around different kinds of geographical consequences (eg consequences for old producer and new producer regions; costs and benefits for different groups/places)
• might systematically discuss the effects of changes for different types of globalized product.

For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant economic and/or environmental themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide (both economic and environmental)
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.